WORKS 


ISSUED 


BY  THE 


jtm^rJtHtt  %tmt}i  ytMtnim  ^mzi^, 


NEW  YORK. 


Issue  for  5636-  1875-6. 


•nnyn';i 


min^ 


NEW  YORK : 

PRINTED   AT  THE  INDUSTBIAL    SCHOOL    OF    THE   HEBREW    ORPHAN    A8TLITM, 

76th  Stbjcxt,  bkt.  Tbibd  and  Lexiroton  Ate*. 

1875. 


HEBREW 
CHARACTERISTICS: 


MISCELLANEOUS  PAPERS 


FROM   THE   GERMAN. 


•mivnbi 


mm? 


NEW   YORK: 
October,  1875. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1875, 
By  the  AMERICAN  JEWISH  PUBLICATION  SOCIETY, 

in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


\u^ov^^, 


PREFACE. 


The  translation  of  the  following  essays  being  prepared  for 
the  general  reader  rather  than  the  student  of  that  branch  of 
Jewish  literature  to  which  they  belong,  it  has  been  thought 
advisable  to  issue  them  in  their  present  form  unencumbered  by 
the  purely  literary  and  scientific  ground  work  of  the  originals. 
The  names  of  their  authors  may  be  accepted  as  a  sufficient 
guarantee  for  the  correctness  of  every  statement  contained  in 
them  In  the  translation,  the  competent  reader  will  recognize 
the  hand  of  a  master  of  both  idioms,  and  acknowledge  that  it 
is  as  faithful  and  polished  a  r'4»ndering  of  the  original  as  the 
difference  of  idioms  permits. 

PUBLICATION  COMMITTEE 

of  the  A.  J.  P.  S- 


)nhlt{  xiF  i0iti0nJ$* 


PAGE 

L  Extracts  from  Jewish  Moralists   (from  the   elev- 
enth    TO    THE     FIFTEENTH     CENTCRY).       FrOlll     Dr.    L. 

Zltiz's:  "Zwr  Geschichte  und  Literatur."     (Berlin: 

Veit  &  Co.  1845.)  7 

II.  Jewish  Marriage  in  Post-Biblical  Times.  A  Study 
ill  Archoealogy  by  Dr.  Joseph  Perles.  (Frankel: 
Monatschrift,  1860.) 45 

III.    Om    I>fTERMENT  OF  THE  DeaD  IN  PoST-BlBLTCAL  JuDAISM. 

A  Study  in  Archaeology  by  Dr.  Joseph  Perles. 
(Frankel:  Monatschrlft,  1869.  Separately  published, 
Breslau,  Schletter'sche  Buchhandlung.)      ...         69 


EXTRACTS 


FROM 


Jewish  Moralists. 

EUu^nth  to  Fifteenth  6enturi^» 


FROM 


Dr.    ZUII2:'S 
"Zur  GesctLiclite  und  Literatur." 


%xtxvicis  from  gjetaxsTx  ia0ralxsts, 

ELEVENTH    TO    FIFTEENTH    CENTUBY. 

From  Dr.  ZUNZ'S   "  Zur   Gescliiclite   und 
Literatur." 


PMONG  Jews,  investigators  of  texts  and  men  learned 
in  the  law  have  also  been  the  accredited  expounders 
of  moral  obligations  ;  it  is  important  that  this  should 
be  borne  in  mind,  for  the  remark  applies  to  a  persecuted  race  and 
a  much  calumniated  religion.  How  powerful,  how  pure  moral 
conviction  was  among  this  people,  their  religious  poetry  and  prac- 
tical legal  learning  show  with  equal  force  :  what  in  the  first  was 
sentiment,  in  great  measure  ideal,  in  the  second  becomes  actual, 
tangible  fact ;  the  feeling  passionately  expressed  in  the  poetic 
works  of  Samuel  the  Pious  and  other  Hymnologues  is  carried 
into  actual  execution,  into  actual  life,  in  the  juridical  deliverances 
of  Jehuda  ha-Cohen,  Solomon  b.Isaac,  and  Jacob  b.  Meir ;  in  the 
decisions  of  Isaac  b.  Abraham,  Eliazar  ha-Levi,  Isaac  b.  Moses, 
Meir  b.  Baruch,  and  their  successors  ;  in  the  codices  of  Eliazar 
of  Metz  and  Moses  of  Coucy.     But  the  teachers  of  that  age 


10  HEBREW   CHABACTEEI8TIC8. 

were  not  content  with  the  working  on  the  minds  of  the  educated, 
and  the  learned  in  the  Halacha,  they  sought  themselves  to  mould 
minds  to  appreciate  moral  distinctions,  to  appreciate  essential 
morality  by  oral  discourses  in  the  Synagogue,  by  special  ethical 
treatises,  by  original  exposition  and  treatment  of  religious  sub- 
jects.    When,  some  seventy  years  ago,  a  Professor  cast  a  casual 
glance  on  one  of  these  writings,  he  exclaimed  with  condescend- 
ing approval,  "  In  such  times  as  those  we  could  hardly  expect 
to  find  even  from  Christians  such  moral  teachings  as  this  Jew 
(K.  Asher  in  Toledo)  inculcated  upon  and  transmitted  to  his 
co-religionists."     But  the  truth  is,  that  the  ethical  doctrine  of 
these  Jews  need  not  blush  in  the  presence  of  any   of  later 
origin ;  and  the  Israelites  of  the  German  middle  age,  children  of 
the  devil  as  they  were,  stand  immeasurably  higher  in  ihS  moral 
scale  than  the  Priests  of  Tyrol  of  two  hundred  years  ago,  for 
example,  among  whom  gluttony,  laziness,  unchastity,  stupidity, 
and  heathenish  superstition  were  almost  universally  to  be  found.* 
This  ethical  literature  is  composed  partly  of  interpretative 
notes  on  the  old  Mishna  Abot,  partly  belongs  to  excgetical  or 
halachic  works,  either  as  suitable  comments  upon  special  pas- 
sages of  the  earlier  books  of  exegesis  or  as  separate  treatises. 
Sometimes  they  have  the  form  of  testaments  to  children  and 
family  connections  ;  sometimes  they  liave  allegorical  or  poetical 
form ;  sometimes  they  are  direct  exhortations  to  lead  a  moral 
and  God-fearing  life.     Between  the  years  1050  and  1490,  at 
least  thirty  works  of  this  sort  might  be  specially  named.     Let 
us  listen  to   the   very  words  of  some  of  tlicso   old   teachers. 
They  will  amply  repay  attention. 

, ♦  Beda  Weber  :  "Tyrol  und  di«  Eeformation."    Innsbruck,  1841. 


HEBREW   CHAEACTEEI8TIC8.  11 

E.  Eliezer  b.  Isaac  (about  1050). 
From   Orchot    Chayim, 

My  eon,  give  God   all  honor  and  the  gratitude  which  is  his 
due;  for  He  it  is  who  made  thee  and  brought  thee  into  this 
world.     Tliou  hast  need  of  Him,  but  He  needs  thee  not.     Put 
no  trust  in  thy  mere  corporeal  well-doing  here  below  !     Many  a 
one  liath  laid  him  down  to  sleep  at  nightfall,  but  at  morn  risen 
not  agiiin  ;  many  a  one  hath  gone  to  his  couch  at  nightfall  sound 
in  health  and  of  liigh  cheerfulness,  and  has  waked  up  to  agonies 
and  terrors.     Fear  the  Lord,  the  God  of  thy  fathers ;  fail  never 
at  eventide  to  pronounce  the  great  word  wherein  Israel  is  wont  to 
proclaim  that  He  is,  and  that  He  is  One,  and  One  only  ;  at  dawn 
fail  never  to  read  the  appointed  prayers;  see  that  thou  guard  well 
tliy  soul's  holiness;  let  the  thoughts  of  thy  heart  be  saintly  when 
thou  liest  waking  in  the  bed,  and  profane  not  thy  soul,  even  in 
the  hour  of  most  intimate  communing  with  others,  with  words 
of  impurity.     Be  thou  cleanly  in  things  that  concern  the  body; 
wash  well  thine  hands  ere  the  morning  be  far  gone ;  and  when 
thou  seest  that  they  are  clean  and  pure,  fold  them  then  in  prayer. 
Praise  thy  Creator  when  thou  puttest  on  thy  clothing,  and 
when   thou   takest   the   nourishment   that   supports   life.     Be 
among  the  first  to  reach  the  house  of  God :  enter  it  with  reve- 
rential awe.     Think  well  before  whom  it  is  thou  standest  there. 
When  thou  goest  to  the  place  where  the  law  and  the  truth  are 
studied,  let  no  idle  word  pass  thy  lips ;  note  well  in  mind  the 
words  of  the  sages  there  ;  deem  not  that  anything  there  is  small 
and  of  slight  account,  and  beware  that  thou  never  allow  thy- 
self to  look  down  on  any  one.     Visit  the  sick  and  sufi'ering 
man,  and  let  thy  countenance  be  cheerful  wheu  he  sees  it,  but 


12  HEBREW    CHABACTERISTICS. 

not  SO  that  thou  oppress  the  helpless  one  with  gaiety.     Com- 
fort those  that  are  in  grief;  let  piety  where  thou  seest  it  affect 
thee  even  to  tears ;  and  then  it  may  be  that  thou  wilt  be  spared 
the  grief  of  weeping  over  the  death  of  thy  children.     Respect 
the  poor  man  by  gifts  whose  hand  he  knows  not  of ;  and  when 
he  eats  at  thy  table  gaze  not  on  him  too  much,  lest  he  doubt 
his  welcome ;  be  not  deaf  to  his  beseechings,  deal  not  hard  words 
out  to  him,  and  give  him  of  thy  richest  food  when  he  sits  at 
meal  with  thee.     When  thou  prayest,  be  lowly  and  think  thy- 
self nothing  before  the  Almighty,  and  use  all  thy  soul's  energy 
and  force  to  hold  in  check  what  evil  desire  there  may  be  in 
thine  heart.     Greet  every  man  pleasantly,  speak  truth  only,  for- 
get not  modesty,  and  in  thy  eating  be  moderate ;  rather  feed 
thyself  with  the  vilest  weed  than  make  thyself  dependent  on 
other  human  beings  ;  and  seek  not  greedily  after  power  and 
pre-eminence  in  the  world.     From  a  wicked  neighbor,  from  a 
person  of  ill  fame,  see  that  thou  keep  aloof,  and  spend  not 
much  of  thy  time  among  people  who  speak  ill  of  their  brother- 
man  ;  be  not  as  the  fly  that  is  always  seeking  sick  and  wounded 
places ;  and  tell  not  of  the  faults  and  failings  of  those  about 
thee.     Take  no  one  to  wife  unworthy  to  be  thy  life's  partner, 
and  keep  thy  sons  close  to  the  study  of  divine  things.     Dare 
not  to  rejoice  when  thine  enemy  comes  to  the  ground ;  but 
give  him  food  when  he  hungers  ;  be  on  thy  guard  lest  thou  give 
pain  ever  to  the  widow  and  the  orphan  ;  beware  lest  thou  ever 
set  thyself  up  to  be  both  witness  and  judge  against  another ;  and 
when  thou  passest  judgment,  see  that  thou  invoke  counsel  from 
another  mind.     Never  enter  thy  house  with  abrupt  and  star- 
tling step,  and  bear  not  thyself  so  that  those  who  dwell  under 
thy  roof  feel  dread  when  in  thy  presence.     Purge  thy  soul  of 


HEBREW    CHAEACTERI6TICB.  13 

angry  passion,  that  iulieritance  of  fools ;  love  wise  men,  and 
strive  to  know  more  and  more  of  the  works  and  the  ways  of 
thy  Creator.  Forget  not  that  the  hope  of  pious  souls  is  that 
concealed  paradise  prepared  by  God  before  the  foundations  of 
the  world  ;  tliat  consecrated  place  where  pure  spirits  and  holy 
enter  at  last  into  their  rest. 

R.  Eleazar  b.  Jehtjda  of  Worms.  (Obt.  1238.) 
From  JRokeach. 
No  crown  carries  such  royalty  with  it  as  doth  humility ;  no 
monument  gives  such  glory  as  an  unsullied  name;  no  worldly 
gain  can  equal  that  which  comes  from  observing  God's  laws ; 
the  highest  sacrifice  is  a  broken  and  contrite  heart :  the  high- 
est  wisdom  is  that  which  is  found  in  the  law ;  tlio  noblest  of  all 
ornaments  is  modesty  ;  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  things  man 
can  do  is  to  forgive  wrong.  Cherish  a  good  heart  when  thou 
findest  it  in  any  one;  hate,  for  thou  mayest  hate  it,  the  haughti- 
ness of  the  overbearing  man,  and  keep  the  boaster  at  a  dis- 
tance. There  is  no  skill  or  cleverness  to  be  compared  to  that 
which  avoids  temptation ;  there  is  no  force,  no  strength  that 
can  equal  piety.  All  honor  to  him  who  thinks  continually 
and  with  an  anxious  heart  of  his  Maker  ;  who  prays,  reads, 
learns,  and  all  these  with  a  passionate  yearning  for  his  Maker's 
grace.  Such  a  one  bears  about  with  him  unrepiningly  the 
burden  of  his  nation's  faith,  holds  worldly  delights  in  con- 
tempt, is  moderate  in  all  the  workings  of  his  mind,  is  master 
of  his  passions,  and,  in  sooth,  has  God  continually  before  his 
eyes.  The  path  which  his  feet  tread  is  straightforward,  and 
the  words  which  he  utters  to  others  are  soft  and  sweet;  he  edu- 
cates his  children  for  a  worthy  life,  infuses  love  and  righteous. 


14  HEBREW   CHAEACTEKISTICS. 

ness  into  all  his  works,  seeks  to  lead  others  into  the  right 
way;  he  reverences  his  wile  and  is  inflexible  in  fidelity  to  her; 
he  sees  that  his  children  take  to  themselves  husbands  and 
wives  as  soon  as  may  be,  after  age  fits  them  for  wedlock  ;  is  of 
a  contented  mind,  and  rejoices  when  the  world  goes  well  with 
other  men.  Such  a  one  loves  his  neighbors  and  friends,  lends 
to  the  needy,  gives  alms  secretly,  and  does  good  purely  and 
simply  for  God's  sake ;  such  a  one  you  will  find  early  and  find 
late  in  the  house  of  study  and  prayer,  where  he  may  add  to 
the  store  of  his  knowledge  and  may  pray  from  the  depths  of 
his  reverent  heart.  God's  blessing  be  on  him  and  on  his  chil- 
dren. 

Do  not  inquire  too  curiously  concerning  thy  Creator,  or  seek 
by  mere  questioning  to  know  the  origin  of  things;  but  see 
that  God  is  never  far  from  thy  thoughts ;  forget  not  what  He 
has  done  for  thee,  and  let  not  strange  gods,  let  not  thine  own 
sensuous  nature  hold  dominion  over  thy  life.  Let  thy  deal- 
ings be  of  such  sort  that  a  blush  need  never  visit  thy  cheek ; 
be  sternly  dumb  to  the  voice  of  passion ;  commit  no  sin,  saying 
to  thyself  that  thou  wilt  repent  and  make  atonement  at  a  later 
time.  Let  no  oath  ever  pass  thy  lips;  play  not  the  haughty 
aristocrat  in  thine  heart ;  follow  not  the  desire  of  the  eyes, 
banish  carefully  all  guile  from  thy  soul,  all  unseemly  self  asser- 
tion from  thy  bearing  and  thy  temper.  Speak  never  mere 
empty  words ;  enter  into  strife  with  no  man  ;  place  no 
reliance  on  men  of  mocking  lips;  wrangle  not  with  evil  men; 
cherish  no  too  fixed  good  opinion  of  thyself,  but  lend  thine  ear 
to  remonstrance  and  reproof.  Be  not  weakly  pleased  at  demon- 
stration of  honor ;  strive  not  anxiously  for  distinction ;  never 
let  a  thought  of  envy  of  those  who  do  grave  wrong  cross  thy. 


HEBREW   0HARACTERI8TICB.  15 

mind;  be  never  enviously  jealous  of  others,  or  too  eager  for 
money.  Honor  thy  parents;  make  peace  whenever  thou  canst 
among  people,  lead  them  gently  into  the  good  patli;  place  thy 
trust  in,  give  thy  company  to,  those  who  fear  their  God.  If 
the  means  of  thy  support  in  life  be  measured  out  scantily  to 
thee,  remember  that  thou  hast  to  be  thankful  and  grateful 
even  for  the  mere  privilege  to  breathe,  and  that  thou  must 
take  up  that  suffering  as  a  test  of  thy  piety  and  a  preparation 
for  better  things.  But  if  worldly  wealth  be  lent  to  thee,  exalt 
not  thyself  above  thy  poor  brother ;  for  both  of  ye  came  naked 
into  the  world,  and  both  of  ye  will  sui-ely  have  to  sleep  at  last 
together  in  the  dust. 

Thirteen  passages  in  the  Pentateuch  enjoin  upon  us  the  love 
of  God  ;  and  when  the  temper  of  a  man  is  filled  with  love  for 
his  God,  he  needs  must  serve  his  Maker  faithfully,  though  men 
should  seek  to  drag  him  from  the  service  by  main  force.  For 
then  man  is  filled  as  with  a  consuming  desire  to  mould  his  life 
according  to  God's  will,  and  delight  in  God  makes  us  forget 
all  the  world's  delights.  He  who  is  possessed  by  the  love  of  God 
sets  not  the  store  he  did  on  the  raptures  of  his  wife's,  the  delights 
of  his  children's  love.  For  nothing  can  be  the  real  business  of 
his  life  save  to  fulfill  divine  commands,  to  see  that  God's  name 
is  recognized  as  holy,  to  bring  to  God  the  sacrifice  of  his  undivided 
hfe.  Men  of  this  sort  do  not  exalt  themselves  above  others,  in- 
dulge in  no  idle  talk,  long  not  wretchedly  for  the  love  in  woman's 
eyes,  are  silent  when  blame  is  poured  on  them  ;  for  their  thonn-hts 
are  not  where  they  are  themselves,  but  ever  with  Him  whose 
praises  are  sung  by  their  faithful  lips. 

Let  the  man  of  humble  mind  carefully  evade  all  marks  of 
special  esteem  and  recognition  from  men.     If  his  failings  are 


16  HEBREW   CHA.EACTERI6TIC8. 

spoken  of,  let  liim  give  God  thanks  for  putting  this  humiliation 
on  him  for  the  amendment  of  his  ways,  if  they  need  it.  But  if 
he  is  well  and  surely  convinced  that  they  need  it  not  in  that 
wherein  they  blame,  let  him  after  all  remember  that  whatsoever 
he  be,  he  is  but  imperfect  compared  with  what  is  required  of  him, 
and  forgive  the  person  who  is  speaking  ill  of  him.  Wholly 
incompatible  with  a  humble  spirit  is  loud  and  passionate  talk, 
falsehood,  uttering  of  oaths,  mockery,  unrestrained  desire, 
vengefulness ;  the  humble  man  seeks  not  revenge  for  injuring 
treatment,  but  bears  it  with  unruffled  temper ;  if  calamity  strike 
him,  if  his  property  be  taken  from  him,  if  he  lose  children  or 
near  relations,  he  does  but  acknowledge  devoutly  that  Provi- 
dence is  just.  When  his  conscience  tells  him  that  he  has 
offended  against  his  brother-man,  he  confesses  the  wrong,  and 
he  does  not  too  eagerly  confute  and  confound  one  who  has 
spread  abroad  falsehood  concerning  him.  My  son,  shake  off  all 
haughtiness,  of  mind  and  cling  to  humilit}',  cease  to  exalt  thy- 
self in  thine  own  estimation,  and  be  of  lowly  mind  and  temper; 
let  none  of  thy  failings  appear  small  or  trifling  in  thine  own 
eyes,  but  all  of  them  weighty  and  great;  remember  whence  thou 
camest  and  whither  thou  gocst;  repent,  atone,  and  serve  thy 
Maker  with  love;  free  thyself  from  passion  and  desire  before  thy 
light  is  quenclied,  before  thy  soul  is  required  of  thee,  before 
the  book  of  thy  deeds  is  opened  for  judgment. 

Tlie  thoughts  of  thy  heart  and  the  imaginations  of  thy  soul 
remain  pure  if  the  work  of  thy  hands  be  pure.  Fly  from  all 
unseemly  things ;  close  thine  eyes,  thy  cars  to  them  with  stern 
decision  ;  for  there  be  desires  which  cause  the  soul  to  be  apos- 
tate from  God.  Therefore  in  the  days  when  thou  art  still 
young,  think  of  Him  who  made  thee,  of  the  heavenly  Father 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  1  ( 

who  supported  thee,  clothed  thee,  and  requite  liim  not  ungrate- 
ful by  delivering  up  thy  soul  to  impurity.  Bear  well  thy 
heart  against  the  assaults  of  envy  which  kills  even  sooner  than 
death  itself;  and  know  no  envy  at  all,  save  such  envy  of  the 
merits  of  virtuous  men  as  shall  lead  thee  to  emulate  the  heauty 
of  their  lives.  Surrender  not  thyself  a  slave  to  hate,  that  ruin 
of  all  the  heart's  good  resolves,  that  destroyer  of  the  very 
savor  of  food,  of  our  sleep,  of  all  reverence  in  our  souls.  Keep 
peace  both  within  the  city  and  without,  for  it  goes  well  with  all 
those  who  are  counselors  of  peace  ;  be  wholly  sincere ;  mislead 
no  one  by  prevarications,  by  words  smoother  than  intention,  as 
little  as  by  direct  falsehood.  "Would  ye  know  why  men  die 
before  their  time  ?  It  is  because  they  lie.  For  God  the  Eternal 
is  a  God  of  Truth ;  it  is  He  from  whom  ti-uth  flowed  first,  He 
who  begat  truth  and  sent  it  into  creation.  Let" the  fear  of  God 
breed  in  thee  the  habit  of  silence,  for  much  speech  can  hardly 
be  without  some  sin.  But  when  thou  dost  speak,  speak  truth 
only,  speak  never  praise  of  thyself,  and  speak  ever  moderate 
thought  in  modest  words. 

If  thou  hadst  lived  in  the  dread  days  of  martyrdom,  and  the 
peoples  had  fallcTi  on  thee  to  force  thee  to  apostatize  from  thy 
faith,  thou  wouldst  surel}-^,  as  did  so  many,  have  given  thy  life 
in  its  defense.  Well  then  ;  fight  now  the  fight  laid  on  thee  in 
the  better  days,  the  fight  with  evil  desire ;  fight  and  conquer, 
and  seek  for  allies  in  this  warfare  of  your  soul,  seek  them  in  thf 
fear  of  God  and  the  study  of  his  law.  Forget  not  that  God 
recompenses  acciording  to  the  measure  wherewith  ye  ^vithstand 
the  evil  in  your  heart.  Be  a  man  in  thy  youth ;  but  if  thou 
wert  then  defeated  in  the  struggle,  return,  return  at  last  to  God, 
however  old  thou  mayest  be,  and  even  in  the  later  vears  thou 


18  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

wilt  find  healing  and  safety  in  His  hands.  Sin  not  in  secret, 
and  be  not  ashamed  to  fuliill  the  commandments  of  God  in  the 
sight  of  men;  reckon  up  aright,  make  no  foolish  mistake  as  to 
what  thon  owest  to  God,  what  to  man.  Murmur  not  because 
the  world  goes  well  with  the  powerful  and  wicked.  The  ways 
and  the  leading  of  God  are  wonderful  and  admirable,  even 
though  our  poor  e^'^es  may  sometimes  not  be  able  to  see  the 
good  things  whicli  be  sure  He  yet  always  does  for  Israel, 
Remain  faithful  to  the  law,  deny  thyself  even  many  things  that 
are  permitted,  be  so  far  as  thou  canst  ever  of  cheerful  and  ever 
joyous  temper  ;  and  forget  not  that  it  is  to  God,  God  Eternal, 
God  the  Only  One,  to  whom  thy  soul  returns  in  death. 

From  the  Book  of  "  Pious  Soui.s." 
Begun  hy  R.  Jehuda  h.  Saimiel  of  Regenshurg. 
Be  a  man's  piety  ever  so  great,  he  can  make  no  claim  to 
recompense  at  God's  hands,  were  his  life  to  last  even  for  thou- 
sands of  years ;  there  is  none,  no,  not  the  least  of  the  benefits 
conferred  on  him  by  God  which  lie  could  repay.  Therefore  let 
no  one  serve  his  Creator  merely  because  lie  hopes  for  Paradise, 
l)ut  out  of  pure  love  for  Him  and  His  comniandniont.  Let 
man  in  his  solitary  hours  feel  the  same  repugnant  sliame  of 
evil  to  the  sight  of  God,  as  he  would  to  commit  it  in  the  sight 
of  men,  and  let  him  lay  down  life  freely  for  Him  ;  for  if  we  do 
not  so,  we  are  of  less  account  in  the  scale  than  liireling  sol- 
diers wlio  go  into  battle  at  tlie  words  of  command.  That  oui- 
soul  may  become  perfected  in  rigliteousness,  needs  must  tliat 
we  bear  griefs  and  agonies  ;  and  never  should  it  cross  our  minds 
for  an  instant  to  shrink  from  boldly  declaiming  that  we  are 
Jews. 


HKBRKW    CHARACTKRISTKS.  19 

Mislead  ii(»  one  through  thy  actions  debignedly,  ])e  he  Jew  or 
Jiot-Jew  ;  he  not  disputatious  and  quarrelsome  with  people, 
whatever  he  their  luitli.  lie  lioiiorahlc  in  thy  husiness  deal- 
ings ;  do  not  say  that  sucli  or  suHi  n  pi-ice  has  heen  ottered 
thee  for  tiiy  wares  when  the  thing  is  not  true,  and  not  hehavo 
as  though  thou  hadst  a  desire  to  sell  what  thou  liast,  when 
there  is  no  serious  thought  of  doing  so  in  tliy  mind  :  such 
things  are  unworthy  of  an  Israelite.  If  one,  l)e  lie  Jew  or 
not-Jew,  comes  to  borrow  money  from  thee,  and  thou  wilt  not 
because  of  doubt  of  repayment,  say  not  that  thou  hast  no 
money. 

If  a  contract  be  made  between  Jews  and  not-Jews,  binding  to 
nmtual  observance  and  performance,  the  first  must  fulfill  it  even 
if  the  last  fail  to  perform  that  to  which  they  are  bound.  If  a 
Jew  attempt  to  kill  a  not-Jew,  {»nd  the  latter  only  wishes  to 
defend  himself,  but  not  in  return  to  kill,  we  are  bound  to  help 
him  in  his  self-defense.  Injustice  must  be  done  to  none,  whether 
lie  belong  to  our  religion  or  to  another.  On  the  worldly  pos- 
sessions of  those  who  oppress  the  workman,  who  buy  stolen 
goods,  and  keep  articles  decorated  with  heathen  symbols  or 
iigures  in  their  household  furniture,  rests  no  blessing.  Thev 
or  their  children  will  surely  lose  all  they  have.  In  thy  inter- 
course with  not-Jews,  be  careful  to  be  as  wholly  sincere  as  in 
that  with  Jews:  needst  not  that  thou  obtrude  on  him  who  is  no 
Jew,  argument  as  to  iiis  religious  errors,  and  tliou  wouldst  do 
better  to  live  on  charity,  than  to  abscond  witli  money  not  thine, 
to  tlie  disgrace  of  tiie  Jewish  faith  and  name.  If  one  not-Jew 
seek  council  of  thee,  tell  him  where  he  will  tind  a  true  man 
and  not  one  deceiver  in  the  place  whither  he  repairetli.  If  thou 
seest   a  strange  man  of  :iiu)ther  faith  about  to  commit  sin,  pre- 


20  ^  HEBREW    OKARACTERCSTICS. 

vent  its  coming  to  pass  if  it  be  in  thy  power,  and  herein  let 
the  prophet  Jonali  be  thy  model.  It"  an  assassin  take  refuge 
with  thee,  give  him  no  protection,  even  thougli  he  be  a  Jew  ; 
if  one  who  bears  a  heavy  burden  on  his  shouldei-s  meet  thee  on 
a  narrow  and  difficult  path,  make  way  for  him,  even  though  he 
be  no  Jew.  If  one  not  a  Jew  observe  the  precepts  of  the 
natural  (Noachian)  moral  law,  restore  to  him  whatsoever  he 
may  have  lost,  hold  him  in  higher  honor  than  the  Israelite  who 
neglects  the  truth  given  him  l)y  God.  For  tlie  rest,  in  most 
places  Jews  are  not  unlike  Christians  in  tlieir  morals  and 
usages. 

If  any  one  offer  thee  an  amulet,  alleging  it  to  be  useful  in. 
helping  to  favor  or  wealth,  carry  it  not,  but  place  thy  undivided 
confidence  in  God  alone.  If,  when  thy  plans  fail,  thou  wouldst 
seek  any  other  Lord  than  the  Eternal  thy  God,  it  would  be 
apostasy.  If  thou  canst  possibly  support  thyself  with  the  little 
thou  hast,  take  not  aught  from  another  in  order  that  thou 
mayest  be  ricli ;  for  few  of  those  who  take  from  others  have 
any  happiness  in  life.  'No  blessing  rests  on  the  money  of 
people  who  clip  coin,  make  a  practice  of  usury,  use  false 
weiirhts  and  measures,  and  are  in  general  not  honest  in  busi- 
ness;  their  cliildren  and  their  friends'  friends  lose  their  homes 
at  last  and  have  to  beg  their  bread.  But  many  a  one  falls 
into  poverty  because  he  has  looked  down  upon  poor  people 
or  has  repulsed  them  with  harsh  words.  If  one  is  able  to 
work,  I  give  him  nothing,  nothing.  It  is  better  to  spend  on 
poor  people  than  t(j  lavish  in  keeping  useless  foolish  things,  as 
birds  or  other  sucli  trifles. 

To  him  who  is  merciful  and  good  to  men,  God  is  merciful 
and  good:  the  pitiless  man  is  like  tlie  cattle  of  the  field  w]ii(;h 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  21 

are  indifferent  to  tlie  sufferings  of  their  kind.  There  arc  three 
sorts  of  people  i'or  wlioin  we  ought  to  feel  especial  pain  and 
sympathy :  a  reasonable,  prudent  creature  subjected  to  a  crazy 
fool ;  a  good  man  who  has  to  take  orders  from  a  bad ;  and  a 
noble  being  dependent  upon  one  of  vulgar  nature.  There  are 
three  to  whom  we  should  sternly  close  our  hearts :  a  cruel 
person  wlio  does  pitiless  wrong  and  vile  things,  the  fool  who 
rushes  on  ruin  in  spite  of  warning,  and  tlie  ingrate.  Ingrati- 
tude is  tlie  blackest  of  faults ;  it  is  not  to  be  endured  even 
towards  the  dumb  creatures  whom  we  use.  Worthy  of  punish- 
ment is  he,  too,  who  heaps  excessive  burdens  on  the  carrying 
beast,  l)eats  and  tortures  it,  twitches  a  cat  by  its  ears  to  hurt 
it,  or  plunges  his  spurs  too  deep  into  a  horse's  Hank.  A  sick 
or  breeding  beast  ought  to"  be  tenderly  dealt  with ;  if  a  not 
dangerous  dog  runs  into  thy  house,  hunt  him  out  with  a  small 
whip  that  hurts  not,  but  see  that  thou  strike  him  not  with  a 
heavy  stick  or  pour  boiling  water  over  him,  or  jam  him  in  the 
doors,  or  madden  him  by  any  ill-usage.  Even  worse  hath  he 
to  answer  for,  who  deals  liarshly  with  serving  man  or  woman. 
If  the  people  are  good,  yet  thou  needest  money,  part  with 
them  not  to  any  cruel  person  who  will  ciiastise  them  with 
inhuman  severity. 

Hear  not  calumny  willingly ;  seek  rather  to  admonish  and 
restrain  him  who  complains  bitterly  to  thee  of  the  doings  of 
another.  When  thou  speakest  concerning  one,  tell  the  good 
thou  knowest  of  him;  but  do  not  so  in  presence  of  his  enemies, 
for  they  would  make  it  opportunity  to  vent  themselves  con- 
cerning his  faults.  Praise  not  one  rich  man  in  presence  of 
another  rich  man ;  one  author  in  presence  of  another  author, 
and  as  a  rule,  never  one  man  of  any  business  in  presence  of 


22  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

another  whose  business  is  the  same ;  only  thou  niaj'est  freely 
give  all  glory  to  a  God-fearing  man  in  presence  of  another  who 
fears  his  God.  Make  not  reply  in  high-pitched  self-asserting 
tones,  but  with  moderate  and  sweet,  and  wlien  thou  Undest 
thyself  among  people  who  have  nothing  better  to  do  than  to 
jeer  and  gibe,  leave  them  as  soon  and  as  quickly  as  thou 
canst';  for  mockery  leads  to  want  of  respect  for  one's  self  and 
others,  and  that  is  the  high  road  to  an  unchaste  life.  Insist, 
not  upon  having  explanations  by  word  of  mouth  with  one  who, 
as  you  ought  to  know,  will  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  thy  side  of  the 
question,  or  who  is  likely  to  become  embittered  and  vengeful 
owing  to  such  talk. 

If  a  rich  man  and  a  poor  man  be  sick,  and  thou  seest  all  the 
world  going  to  see  the  rich  man,  go  thou  to  the  poor  one,  even 
though  he  be  ignorant  and  unlettered.  But  when  thou  hast  to 
choose  between  supplying  the  needs  of  a  learned  man,  or 
counseling  the  susceptibilities  of  a  poor  man,  the  first  case  is 
of  the  greater  urgency ;  and  if  it  sliould  be  that  the  scholar 
is  also  devout  and  God-fearing,  but  the  poor  man  not  so,  then 
disregard  the  poor  man's  feelings  altogether,  if  need  be,  to  mark 
thy  respect  for  learned  piety.  Be  intimate  and  work  with 
rather  an  uneducated  man  of  generous  soul  than  a  learned  one 
close-fisted.  If  tliou  art  in  debt,  pay  thy  debts  before  thou 
givest  alms.  If  thou  requirest  one  to  join  with  thee  in  fellow- 
ship of  study,  and  knowest  of  a  worthy,  reserved  and  modest 
disciple  of  tlic  schools  of  whom  others  in  reckless  Iiigh  spirits 
are  wont  to  make  mockery,  choose  and  take  him  to  thee,  that 
one  who  is  undeservedly  set  down  may  be  lifted  up  to  his  right 
place.  Make  no  sign  of  visible  disgust  when  thou  meetest 
people  afflicted  witli  loathsome  visible  disease;  for  they  are 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  33 

God's  creatures,  remember,  aiul   healthy   as  well  as  sick  are 
all  alike  dependent  upon  Him. 

Say  not,  "  1  will  avenge  that  wi'ong."  Place  thy  trust  in 
God ;  He  will  keep  thee.  If  any  one  hath  deceived  thee  by 
false  weights,  stolen  from  thee,  borne  false  witness  against  thee, 
be  not  so  misguided  as  to  avenge  thyself  by  doing  the  like. 
"When  insult  is  poured  on  thee,  be  thou  unmoved,  and  never 
permit  thy  pupils,  or  those  of  thy  household,  to  assail  with 
injurious  words  or  blows,  when  they  meet  him,  one  who  is  doing 
injury  to  thee.  Expel  all  envy,  all  hatred  from  thy  breast ;  if 
a  fund  be  making  up,  and  th}^  name  be  put  down  for  more  than 
thy  possessions  warrant,  so  that  richer  men  pay  less  than 
they  strictly  should,  breed  not  quarrel  and  mortification  for 
thyself  and  others  by  remonstrance  and  reproach  ;  hold  thy 
peace  and  busy  thyself  more  than  ever  with  the  study  of 
divine  things.  When  thy  wife  makes  thy  life  heavy  for  thee, 
and  hatred  foi  her  threatens  to  take  possession  of  thee,  then 
implore  the  Loi'd  not  to  give  thee  another  wife,  but  to  turn  that 
one's  heart  once  more  back  to  thee  in  love. 

Let  no  one  be  troubled  in  mind  or  take  up  wrong  ideas 
because  of  the  prosperity  of  wicked  people  or  of  such  as  hold 
parents  in  little  honor ;  their  end  is  bad.  The  reason  why 
good  men  have  an  ill  lot  in  life  is,  lest  men  should  fancy  that 
the  good  man  cm  only  then  be  good  when  the  world  goes 
well  with  him.  If  a  congregation  has  bad  men  at  its  head, 
that  is  a  punishmmt  for  not  valuing  as  they  should  the  good 
men  among  tlieni.  The  children  of  noble,  righteous  converts 
to  the  faith  are  to  be  preferred  for  the  marriage  tie  to  cliildren 
of  Jews  of  nature  cr  conduct  not  so  high. 

The  ancients  of  our  nation  composed  works  and  sent  them 


24  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

forth  without  their  names;  they  dischiiraed  to  seek  recom- 
pensing delight  for  their  labor  in  this  lower  earthly  life.  And 
if  there  be  an}'  one  who  of  pure  vanity  is  minded  to  perpet- 
uate the  memory  of  himself  in  some  work,  very  surely  he  will 
miss  his  aim.  There  was  once  a  rich  man,  who  would  build  a 
beautiful  synagogue  at  his  own  charge  alone,  and  suffered  not 
the  congregation  to  contribute  to  the  pious  work,  because  he 
would  that  the  memorial  should  be  of  him  and  his  posterity 
alone.     But  ere  he  died  his  children  all  were  dead. 

If  a  father  knows  his  married  daughter  to  be  busy  and 
occupied  with  her  husband's  affairs,  let  him  not  suggest  of 
order  her  to  attend  to  his  own,  unless  the  husband  allow  of 
it,  postponing  his  own  interests  for  a  while.  If  a  mother  hath 
enjoined  some  action  on  her  son,  and  the  father  come  suddenly 
and  say  :  "  Who  gave  orders  that  this  thing  should  be  done?  " 
let  not  the  son  say  that  it  was  the  mother.  For  if  it  should 
hap  that  the  father  in  rage  should  vent  an  angry  curse  against 
his  wife,  the  fault  would  be  laid  at  the  door  of  lihe  son  rather 
than  his  own.  If  a  son  see  an  opportunity  for  some  transac- 
tion of  profit,  let  him  rather  miss  the  chance  rlian  rouse  his 
sleeping  father,  unless  he  is  well  assured  that  t}e  father  would 
be  more  vexed  because  the  gain  M-as  sacrific^  than  because 
his  sleep  was  broken.  He  who  spends  substance  in  supporting 
other  than  parents  and  relations  will  reap  no(hing  but  ingrat- 
itude, while  his  property  will  fall  to  those  ofpiis  own  blood  at 
last.  If  a  father  treats  one  son  well,  another^ll,  it  is  the  latter 
who  is  very  likely  to  succeed  to  his  possessiofis.  Let  one  who 
hath  never  known  parents,  but  only  elder  blathers,  render  the 
respect  and  honor  due  to  father  and  motheriinto  these. 

Parents  may  not  hinder  a  son's  marria^  that  he  may  con- 


HKBRKW    CHARAiVfERISTICS.  25 

tinue  to  work  for  them  ;  let  him  take  a  wife  and  remain  with 
them  still.  If  he  can  find  no  wife  at  the  place  where  his 
parents  live,  and  these  be  aged  and  need  his  care,  let  him  not 
leave  that  city :  and  if,  taking  a  wife,  he  can  no  longer  care 
for  such  helpless  father  and  mother,  let  him  remain  unwedded. 
If  he  can  pay  for  the  support  and  care  of  his  parents,  then  he 
hath  a  right  to  seek  wife  and  settle  elsewhere,  only  let  him  see 
to  it  that  they  are  not  such  as  are  repugnant  to  the  parents' 
feelings.  If  his  choice  hath  fallen  on  a  worthy  girl  of  honor- 
able parentage,  but  his  father  or  mother  wish  to  force  him  to 
take  one  not  worthy,  because  her  relatives  offer  money,  he 
needs  herein  by  no  means  to  yield  to  his  parents'  wishes,  for 
their  proceeding  is  blameworthy.  Parents  must  by  no  means, 
on  no  account  whatever,  strike  a  grown-up  son,  curse  him,  or 
so  move  him  to  wrath  that  he  forget  himself  and  with  whom  he 
is  dealing.  If  children  are  hopelessly  divided  in  feeling,  a 
father  does  well  if  he  arrange  all  things  concerning  his  pos- 
sessions while  he  lives,  and  place  property  and  children  alike, 
if  they  be  minors,  with  all  legal  form  under  guardianship  and 
trust. 

Let  not  a  quite  young  man  take  to  ^vife  one  who  hath 
reached  forty  years ;  let  no  girl  be  married  against  her  will  to 
an  elderly  man  or  one  whom  she  cannot  love.  It  is  a  thing 
lijfhly  to  be  disapproved  that  elderly  men  should  dye  gray 
hairs  black  to  deceive  young  girls  as  to  their  years.  In  most 
cases  bad  ])arents  beget  bad  children.  If  parents  have  no 
scruples  about  false  coin  and  false  weighte,  the  sons  are  apt  to 
commit  the  same  crimes.  If  we  see  about  us  so  many  unedu- 
cated and  ignorant,  but  descendants  of  people  of  high  instruc- 
tion, this  is  the  fanlt  of  parents  whom  worldly  interest  hath  led 


26  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

to  form  connections  with  unlearned  persons.  There  was  a 
man  who  lived  a  poor  and  hard  life,  to  whom  a  wealthy  woman 
was  offered  in  marriage  ;  he  refused  her,  for  lier  brothers  were 
unworthy  and  he  dreaded  lest  his  children  by  her  might  be 
the  same.  So  far  as  legal  duty  goes,  a  man  indeed  need  not 
abstain  from  wedding  a  wife  so  connected,  just  as  he  may 
repudiate  his  wife  for  reasons  that  seem  trifling  and  inadequate  ; 
but  many  things  are  permitted  by  the  law,  the  doing  of  which 
may  lay  upon  a  man  the  rendering  of  a  heavy  account  some 
day  or  other. 

On  the  day  of  the  last  judgment  those  who  are  of  kindred 
virtue  and  merit  will  find  themselves  in  final  companionship 
with  each  other.  The  father  then  ceases  to  mom*n  and  grieve 
over  the  son  that  had  left  him  ;  for  the  joys  of  Paradise  and 
the  rapturous  delight  felt  in  meeting  the  radiance  of  God's 
countenance  will  send  into  oblivion  all  the  anguish  of  the 
earthly  life. 

R.  MoSES   OF  EVREUX  (1240). 

Above  all  let  a  man  be  on  his  guard  against  wrath :  for  the 
powers  of  hell  do  what  they  will  witli  the  blindly  angry  man.  To 
guard  against  angry  feeling  is  the  way  to  reach  humility,  and  in 
doing  so  thou  wilt  find  it  needful  to  be  watchful  lest  thou  rise 
into  self-exaltation,  and  one  who  is  self-exalted  ofiiends  against 
God,  with  whose  Being  only  is  the  thought  of  exaltation  com- 
patible. Be,  therefore,  gentle  and  humble  in  tliy  ways  and 
demeanor,  speak  freely  and  accessibly  with  every  one ;  go 
about  with  head  not  held  too  high,  let  thine  eyes  look  some- 
what away  from  people,  but  let  thine  heart  look  them  straight 
in  the  face.     In  discourse  with  folk  look  not  with  intrusive, 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  27 

fixed  eyes  into  theirs;  consider  and  treat  evei-y  one,  rich  or 
poor,  as  one  greater  than  thyself,  to  whom  respectful  conduct 
is  due.  If  thou  knowest  that  thou  art  wealthier,  more  powerful, 
or  more  educated  than  he,  none  the  less  must  thou  treat  him 
with  all  honorable  respect,  remembering  that  he  may  be  a 
better  man  than  thou  at  his  heart,  and  in  case  when  thou 
wovddst  offend  wittingly  and  voluntarily  he  might  only  do  so 
in  spite  of  himself.  In  all  thy  doings,  in  all  thy  resolves,  for- 
get not  that  thou  standest  in  the  presence  of  God,  of  Him 
whose  glory  fills  the  whole  earth,  of  whose  majesty  thou  art 
the  subject  and  creature.  Speak,  therefore,  Avheu  thou  dost 
speak,  with  voice  somewhat  hushed ;  fear  BQm  as  the  servant 
fears  his  lord.  Let  there  be  no  man  before  whose  face  thou 
wouldst  not  scruple  to  do  wrong  things  ;  be  lowlj'  before  everv 
man  ;  answer  every  man's  call  with  not  too  raised  a  voice,  but 
(juietly  as  one  always  in  presense  of  the  schoolmaster  who 
teacheth  him  how  to  live.  Busy  thyself  as  oft  and  as  inuch  as 
possible  witli  the  study  of  divine  things,  not  to  know  them 
only,  but  to  do  ;  and  when  thou  closest  the  book  look  round 
thee,  look  within  thee  to  see  if  thine  hand  can  find  auo-ht  to 
execute  answering  to  something  thou  hast  learned.  Whenever 
night  falls,  whenever  day  dawns,  search  well  into  thy  dealings 
of  what  sort  they  be  j  so  will  thy  whole  life  be  one  long  atoning 
expiating  day.  When  thou  prayest,  keep  all  thought  other 
than  prayer  far  from  thy  soul;  reflect  upon  the  words  of  thv 
prayer  ere  they  pass  thy  lips,  so  that  thou  bringest  a  mind  pre- 
pared and  in  good  order  for  speaking  with  tliy  God.  Yea,  do 
this  even  on  all  other  occasions,  and  even  in  the  taking  of  th}' 
meat  and  drink  be  not  over  hasty  and  quick,  for  even  that  par- 
takes of  the  nature  of  a  fault.     Go  not  about  witli  people  who 


28  HEBREW    CHABACTERI8TICS, 

indulge  without  restraint  in  mocking  views  of  things.  So  shall 
all  thy  dealings  be  righteous,  and  thy  prayer  such  as  God  can 
hear  and  answer. 

R.  MosES  B.  Jacob  of  Coucy  (1245). 
From    Semag. 

Those  who  lie  freely  even  to  not-Jews  and  steal  from  them, 
belong  to  the  class  of  blasphemers ;  for  it  is  due  to  their  guilt 
that  some  say,  the  Jews  have  no  binding  law.  If  things  go 
well  with  Israelites,  they  should  not  lose  their  heads  and  forget 
God,  and  ascribe  all  successes  to  their  own  industry  and  skill. 
Let  no  one,  indeed,  exalt  himself  because  of  any  advantage  he 
hath,  be  it  money,  or  beauty,  or  cleverness ;  let  him  be  and 
remain  before  man  humble,  before  God  thankful.  -The  divine 
mind  dwells  with  the  man  of  humble  spirit,  and  he  who  keepeth 
himself  lowly  doth  as  well  as  though  he  offered  up  all  the 
burnt-sacrifice  that  ever  was  enjoined.  The  wishes  of  the 
humble  man  are  fulfilled  even  before  he  uttcreth  any  words  of 
request.  But,  on  the  contrary,  people  of  haughty  overbearing 
temper  do  but  inspire  aversion  ;  surely  they  will  have  no  part 
or  lot  in  Zion's  future  joy. 

Either  in  commerce  or  in  any  other  of  life's  business,  dare 
not  to  deceive  any  man,  of  whatsoever  religion  he  be,  by  word 
or  deed ;  rather,  indeed,  point  out  to  the  buyer  wherein  thy 
goods  are  wanting. 

It  is  because  man  is  half  angel,  half  brute,  that  his  inner 
life  witnesses  such  bitter  war  between  such  unlike  natures.  The 
brute  in  him  clamors  for  sensual  joy  and  tilings  in  which 
there  is  only  vanity ;  but  the  angel  resists  and  strives  to  make 
him  know  that  meat,  drink,  sleep,  are  but  means  whereby  the 


HEBREW    CHARAOrEKISTICS. 


29 


body  may  be  made  bufficient  for  the  study  of  the  truths,  and 
the  doin"-  of  the  will  of  God.  Not  until  the  very  hour  of 
death  can  it  be  certain  or  known  which  of  the  two  hath  won 
the  victory. 

The  highest  service  that  can  be  rendered  God  is  to  love  Him, 
purely  because  our  Creator.  Circumcision,  Sabbath,  Tefillin, 
are  the  three  symbolic  marks  of  the  Israelite  which  testify  that 
he  is  a  servant  of  God.  And  he  who  is  but  a  novice  in  the 
fear  of  God  will  do  well  to  say  audibly  each  day,  as  he  rises : 
"  This  day  will  I  be  a  faithful  servant  of  the  Almighty ;  be  on 
my  guard  against  wrath,  falsehood,  hatred,  quarrelsomeness ; 
will  look  not  too  closely  at  women,  and  forgive  those  who 
wound  me.  For  whoso  forgives  is  forgiven  in  his  turn;  hard- 
heartedness  and  a  temper  that  will  not  make  up  quarrels  are  a 
heavy  burden  of  sin,  unworthy  of  an  Israelite. 

Berach.ta  ha-Nakdan    (About  1260). 
From    The   Book   of  Fables. 

Prefer  the  possession  of  one  thing  to  the  mere  expectation  of 
two ;  a  small  certainty  is  better  than  a  large  peradventure.  Be  a 
servant  among  noble-minded  men,  rather  than  a  chieftain  over 
the  vulgar.  The  good  repute  of  the  first  will  reflect  itself  on 
thcc  ;  but  the  contempt  felt  for  those  over  whom  thou  hast 
direction,  will  soon  extend  itself  equally  to  thee.  If  thou  too 
earnestly  seek  pre-eminence  and  power,  l)e  sure  that  will  flee 
thee ;  but  if  thou  bearest  thyself  in  this  world  like  a  guest 
receiving  its  hospitality,  men  will  try  to  find  for  thee  a  place 
of  honor  and  a  place  of  profit. 

It  is  an  evil  trait  of  very  many  men  that  they  treat  with  little 
deference  those  who  in  truth  deserve  more  honor  than  them- 


30  HEBRKW    CHARA.CTER1STI0S. 

selves  :  too  often  the}^  bear  a  grudge  against  a  known  good  man 
and  never  come  near  liim  save  when  they  want  some  service 
from  him.  The  man  of  merit  hath  too  often  to  bend  his  back 
before  men  of  vulgar  soul,  and  because  he  only  knows  how  to 
wield  a  good  blade,  while  they  are  in  command. 

The  proud  cedar  is  felled,  while  the  humble  shrub  is  left 
alone  ;  fire  ascends  and  goes  out,  water  descends  and  is  not  lost. 
Exalt  not  thyself  because  of  beauty  and  wealth  over  neighbor 
and  brother  ;  for,  so  doing,  thou  givest  provender  to  loathsome 
hate,  and  the  poor  man,  whom  thou  hast  looked  down  on,  may 
bear  away  the  palm  of  victory  easily  from  thee. 

He  who  would  preserve  his  dignity,  will  perish  rather 
than  surrender  his  honor :  prefers  freedom  and  content  to  all 
luxury  at  the  prison  of  a  stranger's  table. 

Give  thy  love  equally  to  all  thy  children  ;  often  does  the 
liope  placed  on  those  preferred  turn  out  mere  illusion,  while  all 
tliy  happiness  and  joy  come  from  the  one  whom  thou  hast 
disregarded  or  neglected. 

From  thk  Tosafot  of  the   Pentateuch, 
{Second  Half  of  the  VMh  Century.) 

What  a  man  spends  on  the  poor  when  he  is  in  full  health 
is  gold  ;  when  sick,  silver  ;  what  he  provides  for  them  in  his 
last  will,  copper. 

If  thou  return  not  liis  pledged  goods  to  tlie  poor  man  at 
eventide,  tliou  deservest  not  that  thy  pledge,  thy  soul  placed 
each  night  in  the  hands  of  (-rod,  should  be  returned  to  thee  at 
daylight. 

Unmeasured  drinking  of  wine  brings  poverty,  shame,  quar- 


HEBRKW    ClIAUACTERISTICS.  31 

rels;  leads  to  calumnious  talk,  iucliastity,  murder,  to  the  loss 
of  freedom,  of  honor,  of  understanding. 

Power  and  wealth  acquired  without  true  personal  merit,  or 
without  the  fear  of  God,  take  wings  and  fly.  Both  these 
things,  as  well  as  mental  cleverness,  are  gifts  of  God,  therefore 
let  no  man  glory  because  he  possesses  them.  The  only  thing 
we,  as  free  agents,  really  possess  in  full  inalienable  right,  is 
upright  walking  in  the  fear  of  God  ;  and  it  is  because  that  is 
so,  that  we  can  glory  in  the  knowledge  of  God. 

Anonymous    (About    1300) 
{From  Kol  Bo,  No.  67.) 

Wlieu  a  new  spirit  of  atoning  repentance  really  comes  over 
a  man,  so  tliat  he  would  fain  be  pure  from  sin  as  a  new-born 
l)abe,  let  him  read  every  day  some  prayer  that  calls  to  mind 
such  resolve  and  wish.  As  soon  as  he  riseth  in  the  morning, 
let  him  review  all  his  dealings  with  others,  and  be  anxiously 
careful  not  to  do  any  wrong  thing  before  he  sits  down  to  his 
day's  first  food.  But,  should  it  so  hap  that  something  of  the 
kind  hath  befallen,  let  him  confess  his  error,  without  delay,  in 
prayer,  and  he  will  be  protected  against  a  repetition  of  his 
fault ;  for  he  will  be  ashamed  to  stand  as  a  liar  before  God,  and 
that  will  be  his  guard.  If  he  hath  persevered  in  his  good  re- 
solves, let  him  thank  his  Creator  for  it,  who  hath  stood  by  him, 
and  helped  him  to  be  pure  a  while.  Let  him  do  the  same  before 
the  evening  meal,  and  before  his  nightly  sleep,  and  continue  it 
daily,  month  by  month,  till  a  year  hath  gone  by,  so  that  he  may 
be  strong  in  good  resolve,  and  freed  from  his  evil  hal)its.  But 
let  him  never  cease  to  mourn  over  his  earlier  sins,  and  let  him 
impose  upon   himself  many  works  of  atonement  and  repent- 


32  HEBREW    CHARACTEKI8TICS. 

ance,  and,  if  he  be  too  weak  for  this,  let  hiin  strengthen  him- 
self thereto  by  moderation  and  renunciation.  Habitually  to 
renounce  delicacies  at  the  table  is  a  better  barrier  than  fasting 
against  excess  in  matter  of  food.  Let  him  bow  his  spirit  to 
divine  truth,  his  body  to  the  laM' ;  let  him  fulfill  the  command- 
ments earnestly  and  actively,  even  when  false  shame  might, 
perhaps,  induce  him  to  neglect  them.  Then  let  him  not  blindly 
fear  that  the  atonement  he  is  making  cannot  possibly  outweigh 
his  sins ;  for  when  one  repents  truly  and  with  true  grief,  the 
evil  that  he  hath  done  is  no  more  thought  of,  and  the  repentant 
sinner  even  excels  the  sinless  just.  Well  is  it  for  him  who, 
even  out  of  all  men's  sight,  fulfills  the  will  of  God ;  who 
without  murmuring  suflfers  pain  and  trouble  for  his  faith  ;  the 
day  will  come  when  he  shall  be  freed  I'rom  his  griefs. 

R.  ASCHER  B.  IeCHIEL  OF  GERMANY  (DiED    132T). 

{J^rom  his  Testament^) 
Be  not  ready  to  quarrel ;  avoid  oaths  and  passionate  adjura- 
tions, excess  of  laughter  and  outbursts  of  wrath  ;  they  disturb 
and  confound  the  reason  of  a  man.  Avoid  all  dealings  wherein 
there  is  a  lie  ;  utter  not  the  name  of  God  superfluously  to  no 
useful  end,  or  in  places  dirty  or  defiled.  Cut  from  under 
thee  all  mere  human  supports,  make  not  gold  the  foremost 
longing  of  thy  life  ;  for  that  is  the  first  step  to  idol  worship, 
a  heathen  religion.  Nay,  rather  wander  in  all  humility  before 
thy  Creator,  and  where  thou  seest  His  will  to  be  so,  give 
up  thy  money  at  once ;  He  can  more  than  replace  it.  Rather 
give  money  than  words  ;  and  as  to  ill  words,  see  that  thou 
place  tliem  in  the  scale  of  understanding  before  they  leave  thy 
lips.     What  liatli  been  uttered  in  thy  presence,  even  though 


HEBBIDW    OHABACTEBIBTIOS.  33 

not  told  as  secret,  let  it  not  pass  from  thee  to  others.  And  if 
one  tell  thee  a  tale,  say  not  to  liim  that  thou  hast  heard  it  all 
before. 

Sleep  not  late  with  the  indolent  man  ;  rise  with  the  sun  and 
the  singing  bird.  Be  not  a  glutton  or  a  hard  drinker  ;  it  might 
lead  thee  to  forget  thy  Maker.  Do  not  fix  thy  eyes  too  much 
on  one  who  is  far  above  thee  in  wealth,  but  on  those  who  arc 
behind  thee  in  worldly  fortune.  Only  in  respect  of  the  service 
and  the  fear  of  God  look  up  to  the  great,  and  never  on  the 
insignificant.  Take  pleasure  in  being  warned  from  wrong  and 
set  to  right,  seek  for  good  counsel  and  for  instruction  cheer- 
fully ;  exalt  not  thyself  proudly  above  men  ;  do  it  not;  rather 
remain  the  dust  for  all  to  tread  on.  Speak  not  to  others  in 
hard  and  supercilious  manner ;  be  not  obstinate  and  self- 
willed,  but  abide  in  the  fear  of  God. 

Lift  not  up  tliine  hand  against  thy  neighbor,  yea,  though  he 
insult  thy  parents  before  thee;  speak  no  ill  of  anybody,  mock 
and  vilify  no  human  being.  If  any  one  speak  what  is  unbe- 
coming, give  him  no  rude  answer.  Let  no  one  ever  hear  thy 
speech  because  it  is  so  loud  on  tlie  street;  cry  not  out  like 
a  brute  beast,  but  speak  decorously.  Put  no  one  to  open- 
shame  ;  misuse  not  thy  power  against  any  one  ;  who  can  tell 
whether  thou  wilt  not  some  day  be  powerless  thyself  ?  Hunt 
not  for  honors,  and  place  not  thyself  in  any  place  that  belongs 
to  thee  not.  Never  cease  to  acquire  friends ;  avoid  making 
even  one  enemy.  When  a  companion  is  of  approved  truth, 
spare  no  pains  in  attaching  him  to  thee  and  cherish  him 
carefully;  but  flatter  him  not  and  say  no  untrue  word  to  him. 

Do  not  struggle  vaingloriously  for  the  small  triumph  of 
showing  thyself  in  the  right,  and  a  wise  man  in  the  wrong : 

3 


34  HEBREW     CHAKACTEEISTIC8. 

thou  art  not  one  whit  the  wiser  therefor.  Be  not  angry  or 
unkind  to  any  one  for  trifles,  lest  thou  make  thyself  enemies 
unnecessarily.  Strive  not  to  screw  out  the  secrets  of  others ; 
do  not  refuse  things  of  mere  obstinacy  to  thy  fellow-citizens, 
rather  put  thy  will  below  their  wishes.  Avoid,  as  much  as  may 
be,  bad  men,  men  of  persistent  angry  feeling,  fools ;  thou  canst 
get  nothing  from  their  company  but  shame.  Never  address 
thy  remarks  to  an  utterly  irrational  man  of  whom  thou  knowest 
that  he  cannot  take  them  in.  Be  and  remain  grateful  to  any 
one  who  hath  helped  thee  to  thy  bread ;  be  sincere  and  true 
with  every  one,  even  those  who  are  not  Jews ;  be  the  first  to 
extend  courteous  greeting  to  every  one,  whatever  be  his  faith ; 
provoke  not  to  wrath  one  of  another  belief  than  thine. 

Receive  kindly  travellers  who  seek  thy  house  ;  supply  their 
needs  when  there ;  lead  them  on  their  way  with  kind,  good 
words.  Make  not  a  practice  of  sleeping  elsewhere  than  under 
thine  own  roof ;  be  on  thy  guard  against  drunkenness,  and 
then  thou  wilt  not  have  to  repent  vulgar  conduct  and  unfitting 
speech.  Never  be  violently  angry  with  thy  wife,  and  if  haply 
thy  left  hand  had  repulsed  her,  let  thy  right  draw  her  quickly 
to  thy  heart  again.  Make  not  light  of  her  in  thy  dealings  with 
her,  but  hold  her  in  all  respect  and  honor  ;  so  shalt  thou  keep 
her  from  the  thought  and  deed  of  sin.  See  that  thou  force 
not  those  of  thy  household  to  over-fear  of  thee.  Much  misery 
and  wrong  hath  sprung  ere  now  therefrom. 

When  thou  takest  food  or  drink,  give  God  thanks  before  and 
after  enjoying  it ;  when  thou  utterest  the  name  of  God,  cover 
thy  head.  Before  prayer,  before  meals,  wash  thee  thy  hands  ; 
let  thy  demeanor  be  reverent,  not  in  the  synagogue  alone,  but 
in  thy  home;  even  with  thy  wife  thou  dost  not  well  to  speak 


HEBREW   CHARACTEEISTIC8.  35 

with  levity  of  unedifying  things.  Before  thou  eatest,  before 
thou  goest  to  thy  bed,  occupy  tliyself  for  some  set  time  with 
the  law,  and  let  thy  discom'se  at  table  be  on  matter  which  it 
contains.  Prayer  is  the  soul's  service  to  God  ;  see  that  thou 
be  reverent  in  prayer  above  all ;  but  speak  audibly  the  words 
that  thou  mayest  hear  thy  prayer  and  know  that  thou  art  pray- 
ing. 

E,.  Eliazar  b.  SAivruEL  Ha-Levi  (Died  1327  in  Matence). 
From  his  Testament, 

I  lay  on  my  children  my  injunction  or  advice  that  at  morn- 
ing, immediately  after  prayer,  they  read  some  passages  in  the 
Pentateuch  or  Psalms,  or  do  some  work  of  mercy.  In  their 
intercourse  with  others,  Jews  or  not-Jews,  let  them  be  consci- 
entious and  anxious  to  do  right,  amiable  and.accommodatino-, 
and  never  speak  when  speech  is  superfluous  ;  so  will  they  be 
guarded  against  uttering  words  of  calumny  or  mockery  against 
others. 

From  the  Book  of  Morals  (15th  Century). 

The  thread  on  which  the  different  good  qualities  of  human 
beings  are  strung,  as  pearls,  is — the  fear  of  God.  "When  the  fast- 
enings of  this  fear  are  unloosed,  the  pearls  roll  in  all  directions 
and  are  lost  one  by  one.  But  without  taking  a  high  degree  in 
morality  we  can  neither  enter  into  possession  of  the  learning  of 
divine  things  nor  fulfill  positive  precepts ;  nay,  even  a  single 
grave  moral  fault  may  be  tlic  ruin  of  all  other  advantages,  as 
when,  for  example,  one  is  always  seeking  to  set  off  his  own  excel- 
lence by  bringing  into  prominence  his  neighbor's  failings.  It 
is  just  as  with  wine,  the  best  of  which  may  escape  frojn  a 


d$.  HEBREW   CHAKA0TERI8TIC8. 

vessel  through  one  little  hole  overlooked.  But  there  are  but 
few  men  who  recognize  this  to  bo  true  in  their  own  case ; 
they  see  the  lofty  ladder  they  have  to  mount ;  they  cannot  see 
that  their  feet  suffice  not  for  the  ascent.  Or  they  liave  no 
notion  what  a  treasure  they  possess  in  their  own  souls,  and 
recklessly  sell  their  house  and  all  the  treasures  it  contains. 
Eut  the  heart  is  like  a  tablet  as  yet  unwritten  ;  fools  scratch 
it  all  over  and  ruin  it ;  only  the  wise  know  how  to  fill  it  with 
suitable  matter. 

A  habit  to  be  most  especially  inculcated  and  commended, 
is  that  of  cleanliness.  Clothing,  bed,  table,  table-furniture, 
especially  those  used  for  food,  indeed  all  and  everything  that 
we  ever  take  in  our  hands,  let  it  all  be  clean,  sweet,  pure  ;  the 
body  above  and  beyond  all,  made  in  the  image  of  God,  that 
ought  never  to  be  defiled  by  dirt. 

It  is  wretched  pride  when  one  is  always  thinking  others  as 
lower  than  himself,  and  that  his  own  opinion  is  always  better  than 
others'.  All  progress  is  thereby  made  wholly  impossible  ;  such 
a  one  does  things  only  for  approval  of  men,  not  because  God 
wills  he  should ;  is  always  seeking  thanks  for  what  he  does, 
takes  delight  in  others'  crouching  as  inferiors  before  him.  A 
person  of  that  kind  is  like  a  very  superior  article  of  food  burnt 
by  the  cook,  and  which  therefore  has  to  be  sent  away  from 
table.  The  sweeter  self-love  makes  our  own  ignorance  to  us, 
the  more  bitter  do  we  become  towards  others,  the  less  acces- 
sible to  all  opportunity  of  reform. 

Be  reasonable  and  modest  in  thy  dealings  and  intercourse 
with  men  ;  speak  reasonably  and  modestly  with  every  one, 
and  treat  him  fairly  well.  Practice  humility,  even  toward  in- 
mates of  thine  house,  poor  people,  subordinates.     Be  not  chary 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  87 

but  kind  of  speech  with  widows  and  converts ;  put  up  willingly 
with  discomfort  from  their  talk  ;  reply  not  when  men  scold 
thee ;  be  deferential  to  men  of  learning  or  piety ;  thoughtful 
and  circumspect  towards  thy  scholars  and  disciples,  and  never 
be  tired  of  repeating  things  over  and  over  again  to  them,  that 
they  may  understand  them  aright.  Never  be  ashamed  to 
learn,  even  from  less  men  than  thyself.  He  who  is  humble 
toward  everybody,  pleases  and  wins  confidence,  and  every  one 
wishes  to  be  even  as  he  is.  But  the  more  of  worldly  or  other 
good  things  thou  hast,  the  greater  let  thy  humility  be,  all  the 
more  do  thou  pay  respect  to  men,  and  abound  in  kindness 
towards  them. 

Let  a  man  be  never  ashamed  to  execute  the  commands  of 
religion,  even  though  he  be  mocked  therefor ;  never  ashamed 
to  confess  the  truth,  to  set  another  man  right,  to  put  a  question 
to  a  teacher  when  something  is  not  well  understood.  But  let 
a  man  be  well  on  his  guard  against  putting  others  to  shame,  or 
lay  bare  wantonly  the  failings  of  a  neighbor,  or  give  him  a  dis- 
honorable nickname,  or  address  him  by  such.  Never  tell  any 
one  that  such  a  one  wished  to  give  his  daughter  to  thee  in 
marriage,  and  thou  wouldst  not  have  her.  Never  put  in  words 
anything  which  can  call  up  a  blush  on  thine  own  cheek,  or  make 
another's  grow  pale. 

It  is  very  vexatious,  very  wrong,  to  keep  up  and  support 
evil  men  ;  but  to  keep  down  good  men,  and  thrust  them  from 
thee,  it  is  frightful  weakness  to  do  so.  But  genuine  compas- 
sion and  pity  highly  become  and  adorn  the  Israelite  ;  be  pitiful, 
therefore,  even  to  thy  cattle,  and  give  them  food  even  before 
thou  thyself  eatest ;  and  be  careful  that  on  no  account  thou 
give  even  brute  beast  unnecessary  pain.     The  words  of  Scrip- 


38  HEBREW   CHARACTEEISTIC8. 

ture,  "  the  tender  mercy  of  the  wicked  is  cruel,"  refer  to  such 
as  exact  heavy  returns  from  poor  men  for  favors  received. 

Be  tender-hearted  towards  bondsmen  who  are  not  Jews. 
Make  not  their  hibor  too  heavy  for  them  ;  treat  them  not  as 
though  they  were  of  no  account  whatever,  by  words  of  con- 
tempt or  blows  ;  even  in  dispute  with  a  serving  man  speak 
affably,  and  listen  to  what  he  hath  to  say.  Our  ancient  teach- 
ers relieved  the  slave  from  all  responsibility  to  criminal  law, 
and  provided  anxiously  for  his  needs,  even  as  for  their  own. 

"When  thou  seest  that  men  are  not  what  they  should  be,  do 
not  rejoice  over  the  fact,  but  grieve,  for  thou  shouldst  pray 
even  on  thine  enemy's  behalf  that  he  serve  his  God. 

On  thy  business  and  affairs  let  not  thy  trust  and  dependence 
be  placed,  but  on  God  alone.  He  it  is  who  supports  thee,  and 
those  affairs  are  nothing  more  than  the  means  He  applies  to  thy 
support.  It  is  not  the  iron,  but  the  force  that  moves  the  iron, 
that  fells  the  tree.  Think  not,  then,  when  thou  art  supporting 
thyself  by  some  earnings  of  thy  calling,  that  without  these 
earnings  thou  must  needs  starve  ;  but  put  thy  entire  con- 
fidence in  God,  who  will  support  thee  in  some  other  manner ; 
for  He  hath  many  messengers  always  ready  for  his  service.  He 
helps  in  small  ways,  and  also  in  great.  Therefore  put  not  thy 
confidence  wholly  in  any  human  creature,  on  whom  thou  art 
dependent  for  thy  bread,  but  think  and  say  boldly  that  God 
alone  it  is  who  holds  thee  up.  He  alone  it  is  whose  eyes  lead  us, 
poor  blind  creatures,  in  our  path,  we  who  all  stand  in  such  need 
the  one  of  the  other.  So  will  even  he  who  supports  thee  be 
not  overproud  to  thee  for  doing  so  ;  for  he,  too,  is  a  blind 
man  among  the  blind. 

Forget  never  the  merits  that  thou  lackest,  but  forget  always 


HEBREW    CHAKACTEKISTICS.  39 

the  good  that  thou  hast  done  ;  set  down  thy  faihngs,  thy  faults 
in  thy  book,  but  not  the  benefits  thou  hast  conferred.  Forget 
the  wounds  inflicted  on  thee  by  others,  and  when  thou  prayest, 
forget  thou  earthly  things. 

Thirty  things  there  are  thou  shouldst  bring  to  mind  each 
twice  a  day,  and  take  them  seriously  to  heart:  (1.)  God  made 
thee  out  of  nothing,  a  being  set  over  all  created  things,  and 
that  from  pure  love  to  thee,  for  he  owed  thee  no  obligation  to 
do  it.  (2.)  It  is  to  God's  goodness  thou  art  indebted  for 
sound  limbs  and  entire.  How  deeply  wouldst  thou  feel  thy- 
self indebted  to  a  physician  who  should  heal  a  single  limb, 
but  it  is  God  who  keeps  thee  all  thy  limbs  intact.  (3.)  He 
gave  thee  understanding.  (4.)  Holy  Writ  and  doctrine. 
(5.)  The  means  whereby  they  are  understood.  (6.)  All 
creatures  follow  the  will  of  their  Creator ;  beast  and  plant,  sun 
and  earth,  do  what  they  ought  to  do,  and  man  should  be 
ashamed  to  let  his  members  be  used  to  overstep  the  laws.  (7.) 
K  a  mere  serving-man  fears  and  loves  the  master  that  does  him 
good,  how  much  more  should  man  recognize  the  sovereignty  of 
God,  and  be  of  humble  bearing  towards  Him.  (8.)  Faithful 
servants  spend  energy  and  attention  to  execute  as  best  they 
can  their  master's  commands,  and  are  careful  to  choose  their 
words  M'hen  they  approach  him  with  words  of  gratitude  or 
other.  So  let  thy  service  to  God,  both  without  and  within,  be 
reverential  and  anxious.  (9.)  Fulfill  the  commandments  out 
of  pure  love,  neither  on  account  of  men  nor  for  reward.  (10.) 
Think  well  over  thy  bearing  towards  thy  Creator,  whether 
there  be  nothing  wherein  thou  hast  to  better,  to  perfect  thy- 
self. (11.)  Thou  art  indefatigable  to  obtain  money,  that  pos- 
session uncertain  at  best ;    what  labor,  wliat  anxiety  is  being 


40  HEBREW   CHARACTERISTICS. 

spent  uuspairingly ;  is  there  any  for  the  welfare  of  thy  immor- 
tal soal?  (12.)  Thou  puttest  thyself  in  fine  garments  to  please 
men  ;  forget  not  that  God  looks  in  thy  heart :  adorn  that  well 
in  honor  of  Him.  (13.)  If  thou  art  clever  and  rich,  do  good 
according  to  the  measure  of  thy  powers,  and  be  not  idle  in 
that  regard  under  the  pretext  that  thou  waitest  until. thou  art 
still  more  clever  and  wealthy.  (14.)  God  has  given  us  assur- 
ance of  his  love  for  all  time,  and  will  not  thrust  us  from  Him, 
even  in  the  enemy's  country  (Levit.  xxvi.  4i),  therefore  return  of 
love  is  but  His  simple  due.  (15.)  For  the  distant  journey  to 
which  thou  mayest  at  all  times  suddenly  be  called  make  timely 
provision.  (16.)  Keep  thy  soul  always  pure ;  thou  knowest 
not  the  moment  when  it  may  be  required  of  thee.  Many  a 
young,  many  a  strong  man  hath  gone  before  thee  to  his  home. 
(17.)  Seek  solitude,  it  preserves  from  many  a  sin,  or  otherwise 
keep  to  the  society  of  the  pious  only.  (18.)  Be  grateful  for, 
not  blind  to  the  many,  many  sufierings  which  thou  art  spared  ; 
thou  art  no  better  than  those  who  have  been  searched  out  and 
racked  by  them.  (19.)  Thy  possession  is  not  thy  property,  but 
a  deposit  with  thee  only  ;  and  if  it  be  God's  will,  soon  falls  to 
another  man.  Therefore  look  down  on  no  poor  man,  for  the 
more  that  thou  hast  is  no  merit  of  thine  own.  (20.)  Thou  art 
a  being  of  earth,  and  yet  hast  knowledge  in  some  measure  of 
God,  and  dominion  over  the  other  creatures  ;  thank,  therefore, 
and  pay  homage  to  the  Giver.  (21.)  Accustom  thyself  to  do 
good,  that  it  may  become  an  easy  thing  to  thee,  and  implore 
therein  tlic  divine  assistance.  (22.)  Be  lovable  in  word  and 
deed  towards  men.  (23.)  Be  not  blind,  but  open-eyed  to  the 
great  wonders  of  nature,  familiar  objects  though  they  be  to 
thee,  of  every  day.     But  men  are  more  wont  to  be  astonished 


HEBREW    CHARA.CTERI8TICS.  41 

at  the  Bun's  eclipse  than  at  liis  unfailing  rise.  (24.)  Be  not 
content  with  the  studies  of  thy  youthful  years,  but  think  of  and 
study  truth  and  what  thy  action  sliould  be  in  the  years  of  thy 
maturity,  and  thine  insight  will  gain  in  strength  and  depth. 
(25.)  Let  thy  yearning  for  the  delights  of  the  life  to  come  be 
stronger  than  thy  clinging  to  tlie  life  of  earth.  (26.)  Let  thy 
soul  fear  the  chastisement  of  the  King  of  Kings.  (27.) 
Accept  grief  and  pain  with  resignation  and  love ;  be  they  never 
so  keen,  they  are  yet  milder  than  the  punishment  which  is  thy 
due.  (28.)  Be  ready  to  give  back  thyself,  wife,  children,  all 
possession,  to  the  Lord  that  gave  them  thee,  and  be  ever  willing 
to  bear  that  which  He  lays  upon  thee.  (29.)  It  is  often  the 
case  that  one  human  being  is  worth  a  hundred  others.  Never 
because  of  his  body,  but  because  of  his  spirit,  his  mental 
insight,  his  moral  worth.  So  build  ever  higher  and  higher  the 
edifice  of  thy  soul,  for  all  merit  takes  its  origin  there  only.  A 
man,  strong,  healthy,  beautiful,  but  all  astray  in  mind,  is  worth 
nothing,  while  an  ill-favored  man,  weak  in  body,  but  abound- 
ing in  mental  gifts,  may  rise  to  highest  honors.  (30.)  When 
any  one  comes  into  a  strange  land,  where  he  knows,  and  is 
known  of,  none,  and  its  ruler  takes  him  up,  supports  him,  makes 
him  one  of  his  servants,  sees  that  lie  is  well  rewarded  for  his 
service,  and  does  not  suffer  him  to  forget,  in  the  time  of  his 
well-being,  that,  some  day,  the  date  of  which  is  not  yet  fixed, 
he  will  have  to  quit  the  country  again,  surely  such  a  one  would 
be  deferential  and  faithful  in  the  service  of  such  a  master,  and 
specially  love  those  who  are  strangers  there  hke  himself,  and 
do  all  possible  good  for  that  country,  where  no  one  save  its 
king  was  so  good  and  kind  to  him.  "Well,  just  so  did  man 
come  as  a  stranger  into  this  world,  and  no  one  is  his  supporter 


42  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

save  God,  and  no  one  there  is  so  pitiful  and  tender  to  him  as 
He  who  made  him. 

Put  no  one  to  open  shame  ;  injure  no  one's  feelings  who  has 
any  bodily  failing,  or  on  whose  family  rests  a  stain.  If  thou 
sittest  next  to  such  a  one,  speak  not  of  such  deficiency  or  fault, 
even  in  reference  to  other  than  himself.  If  any  one  relate  thee 
something  known  already,  be  silent  till  he  has  finished ;  for, 
granting  that  he  tells  thee  nothing  new,  he  had  the  pleasure  of 
believing  that  he  did.  Touch  not  the  subject  of  a  quarrel  that 
is  ended,  thou  mayest  fire  the  dying  embers  afresh. 

Luxury  and  good  living,  idleness  and  sitting  at  wine,  lead  to 
unrestraint  of  soul,  and  so  to  evil  speaking  and  mockeries. 
People  of  this  kind  sit  there  and  make  merry  over  poor  men  and 
pious ;  but  their  mockeries  strike  at  God,  and  at  the  works  of  God. 
Or  else  they  think  themselves  the  only  clever  ones  of  earth,  and 
make  a  mock  of  other  people's  proceedings,  because  they  are 
not  their  own,  and  never  listen  to  any  advice  of  better  things. 

He  who  flatters  a  bad  man  falls  into  his  or  liis  descend- 
ants' hands ;  flatter  not  either  relative  or  child  when  tliey 
•  are  not  following  after  good  things.  Especially  ought  a  chief 
man  of  any  community,  a  judge,  an  administrator  of  charitable 
funds  to  be  a  true  and  not  false  man,  for  personal  interest  or 
any  other  reason  smooth  and  insincere  of  tongue.  But  wor- 
thiest of  blame  is  that  flattery  whose  aim  is  to  seduce  a  human 
being  into  wrong.  Desire  for  worldly  honors,  self-interest, 
vanity,  these  are  the  things  which  make  men  hypocrites  and 
false.  How  many  a  teacher  and  scholar  in  our  day  are  taken 
in  this  snare.  To  make  their  power  sure,  to  turn  the  lives  of 
people  to  their  own  account,  they  not  only  refrain  from 
rebuking  where  they  should,  but  play  false,  or  put  on  false 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  43 

appearances,  by  keeping  silence  when  they  ought  to  speak  in 
honor  of  the  truth. 

Five  offenses. are  hard  ever  to  repair;  a  curse  launched  at  a 
multitude  of  men  ;  sharing  the  spoil  of  thieves  ;  keeping  as  your 
own,  lost  things;  oppression  of  the  poor  ;  rendering  corrupt  judg- 
ment. Five  sins  are  not  thought  much  of,  but  yet  are  grave  :  to 
abuse  the  hospitality  of  poor  people  ;  to  turn  to  one's  own  use 
the  deposit  of  a  poor  man ;  to  look  on  beautiful  women  whose  so- 
ciety is  forbidden ;  to  rejoice  at  another's  disgrace  ;  to  suspect  the 
innocent.  Five  bad  habits  are  hard  to  get  rid  of:  chattering, 
calumny,  angry  temper,  suspicion,  associating  with  bad  people. 

The  aim  of  all  thought,  the  highest  of  all  merits,  is  love  to 
God  ;  let  this  thrust  into  the  background  all  other  love.  All 
our  dealings  with  the  delights  of  life,  whether  of  enjoyment 
or  renunciation.,  should  lead  the  soul  to  tm-n  freely  and  fully  to 
its  Creator,  so  that  it  may  participate  in  the  light  on  high,  over- 
coming the  desires  of  the  body.  Love  of  that  sort  is  bound  up 
with  a  joy  that  causes  all  the  pleasant  things  of  this  world 
to  fade  into  nothingness;  in  comparison  with  the  raptures 
of  that  love  all  other  delights  pale,  even  those  we  have  in  our 
children.  To  love  God  so  that  His  service,  and  that  only,  tills 
our  hearts,  so  that  if  need  come,  we  sacrifice  om-selves  freely 
and  imhesitatingly  for  it,  that  is  the  sort  of  fear  of  God  which 
Holy  Writ  sets  before  our  eyes.  Well  is  it  with  the  soul,  bless- 
ings on  the  soul  that  reaches  the  enchantments  of  this  joy.  The 
divine  spirit  rests  only  on  those  filled  with  such  joy,  only  when 
they  were  thus  sublimely  glad  had  the  prophets  the  gift  of  the  spir- 
it ;  the  soul  made  holy  by  such  yearning  for  the  source  from  which 
it  sprang  is  destined  to  enter  into  the  appointed  place  where  life 
glows  and  shines  with  a  fire  that  shall  never  be  quenched. 


Jewish  Marriage 

IN   POST-BIBLICAL   TIMES 

^  Stttdi)  in  ^rchxalog^. 
By   Dr.   JOSEPH  PERLES. 


IN    POST-BIBLICAL    TIMES 


A    STUDY   IN    ARCH^OLOGT. 


By  Dr.   JOSEPH  PERLES. 


HE  legal  and  other  consequences  worked  bj  mar- 
riage on  persons  or  property,  the  modes  of  per- 
forming the  marriage  ceremony,  and  everything 
indeed  connected  with  it,  will  always  be  found  to  be  closely 
correlated  to  the  conception  formed  of  marriage  among 
a  people,  and  to  be  best  explained  thereby.  Where  marriage 
is  regarded  as  a  holy  institution,  as  the  keystone  of  genuine 
morality,  as  the  delightful  union  of  two  kindred  souls,  yielding 
themselves  to  each  other  freely  in  love  and  duty,  on  a  ground 
where  they  are  spiritually  and  morally  equal,  there  too  we  shall 
find  usages  religious  and  social,  connected  with  the  solemn 
celebration  of  the  marriage  ceremony ;  there  we  sliall  find  a 
sense  of  sanctity  and  consecration  in  its  performance,  and  a 
joyousuess  among  all  concerned,  not  boisterous,  but  measured 
and  touching  deeply  the  inner  life.  The  position  assigned  to 
woman  by  the  general  feeling  and  opinion  is  here  the  determin- 


48  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

ing  element  and  stamps  itself  unmistakably  on  all  that  is  done  ; 
we  may  certainly  know  by  inspection  of  the  marriage  ceremonial 
whether  the  wife  enters  wedlock  as  dumb  creatures  involun- 
tarily submit  to  the  yoke,  or  whether  she  holds  out  her  hand 
as  an  independent  person  acting  of  free  will,  to  a  husband  of  her 
choice. 

Applying  this  to  the  solemnities  connected  with  marriage 
among  the  Jewish  people,  and  estimating  them  in  comparison 
with  those  practiced  among  others,  we  have  at  the  outset  to  bear 
steadily  in  mind  the  very  different  character  borne  by  marriage 
among  Hebrews  and  other  nations.  That  in  Jewish  marriage 
morality  at  its  highest  and  human,  but  above  all,  feminine,  dig- 
nity were  consulted,  expressed,  and  realized  in  every  word  and 
gesture  is  a  fact  that  has  been  so  proved  by  repeated 
exposition  that  we  need  not  here  enlarge  upon  the  subject. 
For  quite  lately  a  hand  entirely  competent  to  the  task  has 
amply  shown  that  "  among  the  Jewish  people  marriage  was 
rooted  in  morality,  and  grew  to  tlie  height  at  which  it  became 
so  noble  and  ennobling  entirely  by  sustenance  it  drew  from 
moral  ideas."  (Frankel,  "  Outline  of  Mosaico-Talmudic  Mar- 
riage Law,"  p.  xi.)  To  quote  one  only  of  the  countless  utterances 
of  the  Kabbis  upon  the  exalted  significance  of  marriage,  let  us 
hear  the  opinion  of  one  of  these  sages.  "  How  sublime  the 
dignity  of  marriage  is  we  may  know,  for  in  the  Pentateuch,  in 
the  Prophets,  in  the  Hagiographers  it  is  announced  to  be 
of  divine  institution ;  in  one  passage,  Laban  and  Bethuel 
answered — This  thing  proceeds  from  none  lower  than  God 
(Gen.  xxiv.  50);  concerning  Samson  we  read,  his  father  and 
mother  knew  not  that  the  thing  had  been  brought  about  by 
God  (Judges  xiv.  4) ;  and  in  Proverbs,  in  fine,  it  is  written, 


HEBREW    CHARA.0TEBI8TICS.  49 

House  and  land  are  inheritance  from  ancestors,  but  a  thoughtful 
wife  is  God's  own  gift."  Marriage,  indeed,  was  so  serious,  so 
sacred  in  the  eyes  of  the  Rabbis  that  they  declared  the  bride- 
groom pm-ged  of  sin  by  reason  of  his  entering  that  holy  state, 
thus  giving  to  the  ceremony  the  full  effect  of  the  prayer  and 
fasting  of  the  great  Atoning  Day.  Monogamy,  the  only  mar- 
riage which  develops  genuine  and  deep  morality,  which,  even 
as  early  as  in  the  narrative  of  creation,  is  pronounced  the  real 
marriage  of  human  natm'e,  and  which  in  biblical  Jewish  times 
only  temporarily  made  way  for  polygamy,  that  accident  of 
climate,  monogamy  was  the  almost  universal  Jewish  rule  in  post- 
biblical  times;  and  R.  Gerschom,  surnamed  Light  of  the 
Exile,  met  with  but  little  opposition  worth  the  name  when  he 
issued  his  ftimous  condemnatory  decree  against  plural  marriage. 
While  among  Greeks  woman  was  known  as  the"  progenitrix," 
yvvr/  (from  ysiva),  among  Romans  as  the  "  prolific,"  femina 
(related  to  fecundus),  in  the  Jewish  world  she  was  known  as 
"  Ish-shah,"  equivalent,  in  moral  as  well  as  literal  etymology, 
to  the  Isb  :  man ;  and  it  is  she  to  whom  the  Scriptures  princi- 
pally refer  in  speaking  of  a  man's  house^  inc'N  ^'\  in'3  .  AVhile 
the  classical  nations  regarded  Hera,  the  goddess  of  marriage,  as 
^vyia,  the  patroness  that  is  of  the  marriage  yoke,  whose  unseen 
hand  placed  it  on  married  necks,  and  marriage  as  a  yoking 
together  of  two  people,  conjugium,  each  one  of  whom  is  ffv^v^ 
or  o/xo^vS,  yokefellow  ;  while  the  Arabs  and  Persians  give  to 
wedlock  a  still  more  hateful  designation,  the  Hebrew,  on  the 
other  hand,  calls  betrothal  by  a  name  deeply  significant  of  the 
very  soul  of  mari'iage,  JCiddicshin,  or  sanctification,  and  gives  to 
marriage  itself  the  noble  appellation  of  Jlilloola,  or  song  of 
exultant  praise. 


50  HEBKEW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

Where  the  ground  thought  was  so  dignified,  everything  con- 
nected "with  the  performance  and  solemnization  of  marriage 
could  not  but  bear  the  marks  of  exultation  and  purity.  How 
abundantly  true  this  is  of  the  juridical  aspect  of  the  matter, 
the  Talmud  testifies  abundantly,  and  is  shown  by  Frankel 
with  the  utmost  acuteness  and  learning.  In  this  paper  we 
intend  to  confine  ourselves  to  showing,  in  a  brief  space,  how 
this  was  so  in  regard  to  the  solemnities  attending  the  mar- 
riage ceremony  among  Jews  in  post-biblical  times. 

Betrothal  precedes  the  marriage,  which  is  brought  about 
by  the  courtship  of  the  bridegroom,  as  well  as,  in  a 
measure,  by  tlie  mediation  of  third  parties.  The  Talmud 
gives  an  instance  of  a  rejected  suit.  When  E,.  Eliazar  died, 
another  doctor  of  the  law  sought  his  widow  in  marriage,  but 
was  refused  with  the  remarkable  speech :  "  One  without  the 
sanctuary  qiay  not  use  a  wine-cup  that  has  served  a  holy  man 
whose  place  was  within."  That,  occasionally,  betrothals  took 
place  while  tlie  bride  and  bridegroom  were  still  unknown  to 
each  other,  is  proved  by  the  observation  of  the  Talmud  that 
no  one  ought  to  marry  a  wife  without  having  personal  know- 
ledge of  lier.  On  certain  days  of  the  year,  there  were  numer- 
ously attended  balls  at  which  young  people  freely  danced  with 
each  other,  and  these  afibrded  Jewish  girls  an  opportunity  of 
being  freely  sought,  and,  in  due  measure,  of  freely  giving 
themselves  in  marriage.  On  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  month 
Ab  and  on  the  day  of  Atonement,  the  young  ladies,  all  clad 
alike  in  white,  that  there  might  be  no  distinction  between  the 
Avealthy  and  others,  went  out  in  groups  to  the  wine  gardens, 
formally  invited  the  young  men  to  dance  with  them,  and  half 
foolishly,  half  in  earnest,  demanded  their  hands  in  marriage. 


HEBREW    CHARACTEEISTICS.  51 

And  these  charming  candidates  for  matrimony  stated  their 
different  claims  as  best  they  couhl ;  those  distinguished  for 
personal  beauty  dwelt  upon  that ;  those  of  high  birth  made  all 
they  could  of  noble  blood  and  its  influence  upon  strict  fidelity 
to  the  marriage  bond,  while  Nature's  step-children,  who  could 
plead  no  merits  derived  from  personal  appearance,  enlarged 
upon  the  transitory  character  of  physical  advantages  and  the 
enduring  value  of  morality. 

Betrothal  was  celebrated  with  a  family  banquet  at  which 
sometimes  the  expenditure  was  very  lavish.  The  apartments 
were  brilliantly  lighted  up,  couches  were  placed  around  the 
walls,  guests  went  in  and  out  in  great  numbers ;  the  women 
sat  at  the  spinning-wheel  and  sang  in  joyous  chorus,  "  Such  a  one 
and  such  a  one  are  this  day  given  in  betrothal."  In  the  so- 
called  and  so  frequently  mentioned  progameia,  a  word  plainly 
Greek,  we  seem  to  have  a  festival  in  honor  of  the  marriage,  but 
celebrated  some  time  before  it.  The  German  Jews  of  the 
middle  ages  begin  this  preliminary  festival,  which  they  called 
"  Spinn-liolz^''  on  the  Saturday  preceding  the  wedding 
day.  It  is  to  be  gathered  from  several  allusions  in  the  Rabbi- 
nical writing  that  certain  days  were  regarded  as  especially  for- 
tunate for  the  solemnization  of  marriage,  and  that  it  was  even 
an  occasional  practice  to  draw  the  bridegroom's  horoscope  to 
determine  the  wedding  day.  The  Spanish  Jews  followed 
Greek  precedent  in  regarding  the  full  moon  as  a  preferential 
time  for  weddings.  There  is  reason  also  to  suppose  that  it 
was  not  infrequent  there  to  place  on  the  bride's  neck  an  amu- 
let, to  preserve  against  the  "  evil  eye." 

The  status  of  betrothed  people  was  one  of  exceptional  honor 
and  respect,  and  they  enjoyed  certain  privileges  in  public  wor- 


52  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

ship  and  social  gatherings.  The  relation  of  God  to  the  Jewish 
people  is  again  and  again  typified  in  the  Bible  and  by  the 
Rabbis  by  that  of  persons  betrothed  in  wedlock.  The  greeting 
given  to  the  Sabbath  in  prayer  and  used  at  its  moment  of 
beginning  is  similar  to  that  given  to  a  beloved  bride.*  The 
bride  had  a  chair  of  honor  specially  assigned  to  her,  and  was 
carried  through  the  city  in  full  dress  upon  a  handsome 
palanquin,  which  was  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  men  of  the 
highest  social  position.  Sometimes  the  bride  was  placed  on 
horseback  or  on  an  elephant,  and  so  taken  to  the  house  where 
the  marriage  was  to  be  performed.  The  Jews  of  the  middle 
ages  used,  following  the  custom  of  their  land  and  time,  to 
meet  the  happy  couple  with  a  handsomely  ordered  cavalcade, 
and  hold  a  brief  tournament  in  their  honor ;  and  the  Rabbie 
lay  down  that  any  damage  done  to  person  in  these  encounters 
need  not  be  the  subject  of  compensation.  It  was  a  duty,  par- 
taking even  of  religious  obligation,  to  join  in  songs  of  praise 
of  the  bride  and  bridegroom,  to  join  festive  marriage  proces- 
sions, and  help  to  stimulate  the  gaiety  of  guests  attending  the 
celebration.  King  Agrippa  once  joined  the  cortege  attending 
a  bride  to  her  marriage  with  the  remark,  "My  head  wears  a 
crown  at  all  times,  and  therefore  I  think  it  well  to  pay  homage 
to  one  who  wears  it  only  for  the  brief  hour."  According  to 
Rabbinical  precept,  the  study  of  the  law  might  properly  be 
interrupted  to  join  in  the  songs  of  a  passing  marriage  proces- 
sion.    R.  Jehuda  b.  Ilai  once  even  bade  his  disciples,  who,  we 

■"  Used  here,  observe,  in  the  German  sense  of  betrothed  woman.  The  Ger- 
mans have  never  fallen  into  the  confusion  of  so  calling  a  person  after  she  is 
married :  a  real  confusion  of  thought  and  terms,  for  no  limit  of  time  can  be 
assigned  after  wedlock  when  the  appellation  should  properly  cease. — Translator. 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  53 

may  believe,  were  nothing  loth,  to  leave  the  lecture-room  and 
add  their  numbers  to  a  bridal  cortege,  and  he  did  .it  on  ethical 
grounds  which  he  quite  seriously  set  forth  to  them.  R. 
Jehuda  Hanasi,  observing  that  a  marriage  procession  was  pass- 
ing, made  his  students  go  and  follow  the  pair,  telling  them 
that  the  practical  observance  of  the  law  was  better  than  its 
theoretic  study.  R.  Tryphon,  too,  once  noticed,  when  in  his 
professional  chair,  a  porripa  nuptialis.  He  stopped  it  and  had 
the  bride  brought  into  his  house,  and  made  his  mother  and 
consort  put  her  into  a  bath,  anoint  her  and  put  on  her  some 
ornaments,  and  accompany  her  with  joyous  steps  in  some  sort 
of  dance  to  the  house  of  the  groom. 

According  to  the  opinion  of  many  students  of  the  text  in 
the  45th  Psalm,  we  have  preserved  for  us  a  marriage  song  of 
the  loveliest  kind.  The  Talmud  has  preserved  fragments  of 
others.  "  Away  with  all  thy  purchased  aids  to  beauty,  She 
needs  them  not,  our  sweet  gazelle-eyed  girl ! "  R.  Jehuda  bar 
Ilai  and  R.  Samuel  b.  Yizchak,  in  a  sort  of  religious  ecstasy, 
danced  once  before  a  bride,  waving  myrtle  branches  and  utter- 
ing songs  in  her  praise.  R.  Acha  once  actually  took  a  bride  in 
his  arms  and  invited  her  to  dance  with  him.  The  rigid  Sham- 
maites  were  averse  to  the  practice  of  pouring  out  rhetorical 
praise  in  honor  of  a  bride  ;  but  in  the  eyes  of  Hillers  followers 
poetry  was  a  need  of  nature,  and  their  system  recognized  it  as 
a  legitimate  thing.  Where  nature  is  given  so  free  a  play,  the 
bridal  couple  wei-e  sometimes,  as  we  might  expect,  the  subject 
*of  the  people's  jests  and  wit,  and  the  gossips  stuck  their  little 
sharp  ])oiiits  into  the  whole  traiisaction.  The  Midrasch  to 
Psalm  i^4-  has  this :  "  Once  when  the  people  saw  a  solemn 
marriage  procession  where  the  groom  was  handsome,   but  the 


54  HEBREW    CHARACTEKISTIC8. 

bride  ill-favored,  they  said  to  oue  another,  That  young  fellow's 
palanquin  is  a  coffin,  they  are  going  to  bury  him  alive."  And 
when  they  saw  it  the  other  way,  a  charming  girl  by  the  side  of 
a  misshapen  groom,  they  cried  out,  There's  the  Beast  going  to 
eat  up  Beauty."  There  was  a  teasing  question  which  persons 
sometimes  put  to  a  young  husband  about  his  wife's  behavior, 
very  elliptical  in  form  ;  "  Is  it  '  whoso  hath  found,'  or  is  it,  '  I 
have  found,'  "  where  the  allusion  was  to  two  verses  of  Scripture : 
"  Whoso  hath  found  a  wife  hath  found  his  happiness"  (Pro v. 
xviii.  22),  and,  "  I  have  found  that  a  wife  is  as  bitter  as  death." 
Something  much  more  serious  which  at  times  oceiu-red  was  the 
application  of  the  so-called  Kezazah,  the  ceremonial  in  which 
the  connections  of  a  bridegroom  incase  of  a  9nesalliance  gave 
formal  expression  of  their  displeasure,  and  which  is  described 
as  of  the  following  kind.  When  the  member  of  a  family  mar- 
ried beneath  himself  or  one  unworthy,  his  relatives  and  family 
brought  a  vessel  filled  with  all  sorts  of  fruits  to  some  public 
place,  broke  it  up,  and  spoke  thus  to  the  bystanders :  "  Breth- 
ren of  Israel,  our  relative  N.  N.  has  maried  a  woman  unworthy, 
and  the  thought  tortures  us  that  his  descendants  should  some 
day  form  part  of  our  family  ;  take  this  act  therefore  as  a 
sign  for  all  future  time  that  his  posterity  are  shut  out  from  and 
belong  not  to  ours."  Whereupon  the  children  present  gathered 
up  the  fruits  that  had  fallen  from  the  vessel,  and  said  in  chorus, 
"  N.  N.  has  been  put  out  of  his  family." 

At  the  wedding,  the  bridal  pair  appeared  in  most  elaborate 
costume,  attended  by  bridesmaids  and  groomsmen  (para- 
nymphs),  and  soon  a  crowd  gathered  from  all  quarters.  The 
head  of  the  happy  bride  was  adorned  with  garlands  of  roses, 
myrtles,  olive-branches,  and  ornamental  reeds,  with  ornaments 


HEBREW   CHARACTERISTICS.  55 

of  gold  or  crystal,  and  silk  from  Miletus.  There  was  many 
a  o-rave  doctor  of  the  law  who  would  allow  no  other  hands  than 
his  to  weave  the  garlands  for  his  daughter-bride.  That  the 
full  stream  of  delight  might  be  in  some  degree  checked  or 
qualified  by  more  serious  thouglit,  it  was  customary  to  throw 
ashes  on  the  bridegroom's  head,  in  sad  commemoration  of  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem ;  or  later,  in  Spain,  to  encircle  it  with 
a  garland  of  olive  twigs.  Young  maidens  went  to  meet  the 
bridal  couple  with  torches,  the  faces  nuptiales  of  the  Komans. 
As  R.  Nathan  b.  Jechiel,  of  Rome,  informs  us,  it  was  the 
usage  still  of  the  Arabian  Jews  in  the  middle  ages  to  carry  in 
front  of  the  bridal  procession  a  number  of  staffs  which  supported 
a  vessel  carrying  combustible  materials,  which  were  fired  while 
the  procession  was  going  on.  In  a  proclamation  of  Peter  the 
Second  of  Castile  (1338),  the  patrols  of  the  city  are  insti-ucted 
not  to  interfere  with  Jews  when  they  passed  the  open  place  in 
front  of  the  citadel,  the  Cassero,  with  their  marriage  proces- 
sions, and  the  document  specifies  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
entitle  to  this  immunity  that  every  one  present  should  be  carry- 
ing a  torch,  but  enough  if  the  first  or  leading  person  of  the 
cortege  does  so. 

In  honor  of  the  young  couple,  wine  and  oil  were  poured  from 
jars  filled  with  them,  on  the  passage  towards  the  house  where  the 
wedding  was  held,  and  the  folks  threw  nuts  and  roasted  ears 
of  corn  about.  It  was  customary  to  carry  in  front  of  a  virgin 
bride  a  vessel  filled  with  so-called  Theruma  wine,  as  a  symbol  of 
herchastity  and  youthful  freshness.  In  Babylon  the  students  of 
the  law  appeared  at  :i  young  lady's  wedding  with  their  hair  richly 
anointed  in  honor  of  the  bride.  At  a  widow's  marriage  the  throw- 
ing about  of  nuts  and  roasted  ears  of  wheat  was  omitted.     Part 


56  HEBREW    CHAKACTEKI8TIC8. 

of  the  same  symbolism  was  the  usage  of  sowing  in  a  flower-pot, 
either  on  the  wedding-day  or  a  little  time  earlier,  grains  of  barley, 
notoriously  of  such  quick  growth,  a  sportive  suggestion  of  the 
fruitfuluessof  the  new  marriage.  Among  the  Jews  in  the  middle 
ages  it  was  still  usage  to  strew  about  wheat  or  barley  in  the  house 
where  the  wedding  took  place ;  or  else,  as  the  ancient  Persians 
did  at  their  betrothals,  to  sprinkle  the  young  married  couple 
with  them.  In  the  same  suggestive  spirit  the  inhabitants  of 
Tur  Malka  used  to  carry  in  front  of  the  bridal  couple  chanti- 
cleer and  one  of  his  wives.  The  inhabitants  of  Beta  were  still 
more  elaborate  in  their  symbolic  procedure ;  they  used  to 
plant  a  cedar  at  the  birth  of  every  boy,  an  acacia  whenever  a 
girl  came  into  tlie  world ;  and  when  young  people  married, 
cut  down  the  birth-tree  of  each  and  use  it  as  material  for 
furnishing  the  bridal  chamber. 

Of  anything  like  a  priest's  blessmg  in  consecrated  places,  as 
essential  to  or  accompanying  marriage,  wc  find  no  trace  in  the 
older  rabbinical  writings  ;  the  first  trace  of  anything  of  the  kind 
I  think  I  have  discovered  in  a  casual  observation  contained  in 
the  Pirke  of  R.  Eliazar,  a  work  composed  under  Mohammedan 
dominion.  In  the  biblical  era,  tlie  bridal  pair  was  blessed 
by  the  parents,  relatives,  and  all  the  people  present  (Ruth  iv.  11). 
In  Tobias  (vii.  13),  the  Greek  text  has  it  tliat  Raguel  blessed 
the  newly  married  pair,  but  does  not  give  the  fornnihi  of  the 
benediction,  but  the  Latin  translation  gives  it:  et  apprehendcns 
dexteram  Mse  suaj  dextrffi  Tobise  tradidit,  dicens:  Deus 
Abraham  et  Deus  Isaac  et  Deus  Jacob  vobiscum  sit  ct  ipse 
conjugat  vos  impleatque  bcnedictionem  suam  in  vobis — "  and 
laying  the  right  liand  of  his  daughter  into  tlie  riglit  hand  of 
Tobias,  he  said :  The  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  be 


HEBREIW    CHARACTERISTICS.  57 

with  you,  and  join  you  Himself  together  and  fulfill  His  promised 
blessing  in  you." 

The  wedding  ring — which  might  only  be  of  simple  metal  with- 
out any  precious  stone — was  borrowed  quite  clearly  from  the 
Romans,  among  whom  it  was  customary  for  the  betrothed  man 
to  send  his  promised  bride  an  iron  ring  without  any  stone.  It  can- 
not be  shown  that  the  Greeks  ever  used  the  ring ;  but  it  occurs 
among  the  Mohammedans.  In  tlie  Christian  church  the  ring 
is  not  mentioned  as  used  at  the  wedding  earlier  than  tlie  tenth 
century ;  while  at  the  betrothal  in  the  very  first  Christian  cen- 
turies, the  young  man  usually  tendered  to  his  chosen,  when  she 
gave  her  consent,  a  ring  of  gold  as  a  pledge  and  token  that 
they  were  soon  to  be  irrevocably  given  to  each  other. 

The  Talmud  is  unacquainted  with  the  custom,  evidently  of 
later  origin,  according  to  which  the  bride,  before  the  ceremony 
was  performed,  was  deprived  of  her  head  of  hair  ;  a  usage  met 
with  also  among  the  Greeks.  Moses  Alaschkar,  a  learned  Rabbi 
of  the  sixteentli  century,  warmly  inveighs  against  this  custom  in 
an  open  letter  addressed  to  Tlemesan,  insisting  that  in  Moham- 
medan countries  Jewish  women  from  the  most  ancient  times 
carried  their  wealth  of  hair  visibly  and  unconcealed,  and  tliat 
in  Christian  countries  they  conceal  it  not  from  any  religious 
obligation,  for  none  existed,  but  merely  in  conformity  with 
general  manners,  which  enjoined  upon  Christian  married  women 
too  that  they  should  not  go  about  with  uncovered  heads. 

In  regard  to  other  usages,  however,  all  of  which  are  directly 
resulting  from  and  typify  the  exalted  conception  entertained 
of  marriage,  a  difierence  prevailed  between  tlie  inhabitants  of 
Judea  and  Galilee;  as  an  instance  may  be  given  that  in  Judea 
the  bridal  couple  were  permitted  a   private  interview   of  one 


58  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

hour's  duration  before  the  final  performance  of  the  marriage 
ceremony,  while  the  Galileans  allowed  no  such  thing. 

There  was  great  merriment  at  the  wedding.  Everything  was 
done  that  dancing  and  music  could  do  to  make  the  guests  as 
happy  as  possible.  A  sort  of  orchestra  was  formed  out  of  all 
kinds  of  the  most  incongruous  instruments,  flutes,  harps,  zithers, 
castagnets ;  tambourines  were  a  very  important  item  in  these 
instrumental  musical  resources  which  were  now  and  then 
helped  out  by  clappings  of  hands,  and  occasionally  varied  by 
cheerful  singing  which  often  attracted  a  great  crowd  of  people. 
It  was  a  popular  saying  that  when  the  castagnet  was  heard  the 
matron  of  sixty  was  as  ready  to  run  to  the  sound  as  the  girl  of 
six.  Now  and  then  the  tide  of  merriment  when  at  its  height — 
and  the  most  serious  among  the  guests  threw  gravity  aside  and 
helped  to  swell  it — was  checked  by  some  one  present  delivering 
a  short  speech  of  moral  reflections.  Moderation,  indeed,  was 
especially  enjoined  by  the  moral  teachers  in  respect  of  outbursts 
of  joy  and  merriment  at  weddings.  R.  Ashe,  observing  at  the 
marriage  of  his  own  son  tliat  the  students  were  losing  self- 
command  almost  in  tlieir  boisterous  humor,  deliberately  threw 
a  valuable  vase  to  the  ground  in  order  to  stem  the  overflow- 
ing current  of  hilarity.  R.  Hamnuna  the  Less,  once  pressed  to 
sing  at  a  marriage  banquet,  broke  out  with  the  strain,  "  Woe  to 
us  we  must  die,  woe  to  us  we  must  die  !"  whereupon  the  others 
responded  in  chorus,  "  Bless  the  truth,  bless  the  law,  which 
arc  our  guard  and  defense."  One  of  the  sages  also  compared 
the  transitory  joys  of  life  with  the  momentary  pleasures  of  a 
marriage  feast.  The  later  Rabbis,  who  were  just  as  little  able 
to  conceive  of  a  wedding  without  its  music,  would  not  have  any- 
thing sung  on    the  occasion   save   religious  hymns,   and  pro- 


HEBREW    CUAKACTERISTICS.  59 

hibited  dancing  altogether,  founding  their  opposition  on  the 
passage  of  Proverbs  (xi.  21),  "  Hand  in  luuid  remains  not 
wholly  pure/' 

Invitations  to  a  wedding  banquet  were  regarded  as  a  special 
mark  of  respect.  The  Jews  of  Jerusalem  had  a  peculiarity  as 
to  this,  evincing  great  reserve  and  distinction  of  manners ;  it 
was  not  usual  there  to  go  to  such  a  celebration  unless  the  invita- 
tions for  the  family  had  been  numerous  and  pressing.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  any  one  who  might  fairly  expect  an  invitation  was 
overlooked,  he  was  justly  offended,  and  now  and  then  took  occa- 
sion to  make  the  uncourteous  giver  of  the  feast  feel  that  he  was 
offended.  R.  Jehuda  Hanasi,  for  instance,  invited  to  the  wed- 
ding of  his  son,  R.  Simon,  all  the  learned  men,  and  only  left 
out  Bar  Kappara,  disliking  and  fearing  his  sarcastic  tongue. 
Whereupon  Bar  Kappara  wrote  on  the  wall  of  the  house  where 
the  wedding  was  to  be  celebrated :  "  240  million  denars  are 
to  be  spent  on  this  feast — and  Bar  Kappara  is  not  invited  !  If 
such  luxury  falls  to  the  lot  of  sinners,  what  grandeur  will  not 
pious  people  have  some  day  !"  The  consequence  of  this  was, 
that  he  had  an  invitation  sent  him,  and  then  he  altered  the  last 
sentence  and  said,  "  If  the  pious  have  the  enjoyment  of  such 
splendors  even  in  this  hfe,  what  glories  must  be  reserved  for 
them  in  the  other !"  According  to  another  authority,  Bar 
Kappara's  vengeance  was  of  a  more  elaborate  and  witty  sort 
than  what  we  have  given.  He  wrote  on  the  door  of  R.  Jehuda's 
house :  "  Death  follows  thy  joys,  what  are  thy  joys  worth  ?" 
After  R.  Jehuda  had  found  out  who  the  writer  was,  he  had 
guests  invited  to  a  special  banquet  prepared  for  him  for  the 
following  day.  Hardly  had  the  dishes  been  put  on  the  table, 
when  Bar  Kappara  began  to  pour  out  a  whole  litany  of  ridicu- 


60  HEBREW   CHARACTERISTICS. 

lous  stories  about  foxes,  and  the  guests  became  so  absorbed  in 
his  proceedings  that  they  paid  no  attention  to  the  delicacies 
before  them  until  they  were  quite  spoiled  and  had  to  be  taken 
back  to  the  kitchen  untasted.  The  liberal  host  could  not  help 
complaining  a  little  about  it  to  Bar  Kappara,  but  received  from 
him  this  answer :  "  I  did  it  because  you  did  not  invite  me  with 
my  colleagues,  and  also  that  you  might  not  run  away  with 
the  idea  that  I  was  enamored  of  your  good  cookery." 

At  the  wedding  banquet  the  bridegroom  took  the  most 
prominent  seat,  while  it  was  one  of  the  conventional  duties  of 
the  bride  to  keep  in  the  background  with  maidenly  modesty, 
and  it  was  regarded  as  a  duty  of  the  guests  to  give  all  the 
pleasure  they  could  to  the  groom  and  his  young  partner,  in 
everything  they  said  and  did.  Friends  testified  their  sympathy 
for  the  bridegroom  by  wedding  presents,  which  were  not  of 
arbitrary  choice,  but  had  to  be  selected  according  to  certain  rules 
distinctly  prescribed  by  law ;  the  groom  for  his  part  sent  all 
sorts  of  love-gifts  to  his  bride.  He  led  the  procession  on  horse- 
back, and  so,  bearing  all  sorts  of  vessels  of  wine  and  oil,  gold 
and  silver  caskets,  silk  garments,  and  other  articles,  it  pro- 
ceeded to  the  house  of  his  bride's  parents,  before  the  door  of 
which  he  held  out  the  wine-cup,  which  was  there  filled  for  him  to 
drink — a  sort  of  loving-cup.  The  bridal-chamber  was  furnished 
in  the  most  luxurious  manner;  linens  of  divers  colors,  stulfs  of 
silk  and  purple,  ornaments  of  pure  gold,  and  fruits  of  every  sort 
and  description  adorned  its  walls. 

In  the  times  of  media3val  oppression,  when  barbarous  perse- 
cutors forbade  the  practice  of  their  religion  to  tlie  Jewish 
people,  there  were  many  reasons  why  Jewish  parents  should 
keep  as  secret  as  possible  the  occasions  when  the  distinctive 


riBBREW   CHARACTERISTICS.  61 

Jewish  rites  attending  infancy,  and  especially  when  weddings 
were  performed.  Accordingly  friends  of  the  faith  had  to  be 
notified  when  such  celebrations  were  to  happen  by  secret  signs 
and  tokens.  The  Talmud  says,  "  When  the  screaming  sound 
of  the  hand-mill  is  heard  in  a  large  building,  this  signifies  that 
a  circumcision  feast  is  coming  off;  when  the  windows  of  a  house 
in  Berur-Chajil  are  brilliantly  illuminated,  it  was  understood 
that  people  were  invited  to  a  wedding." 

According  to  old-biblical  usage,  the  marriage  festival  lasted 
a  full  week.  On  the  Saturday  following  the  wedding-day,  the 
bridegroom  was  distinguished  in  several  ways  in  public  worship, 
and  was  still  looked  upon  as  the  hero  of  the  day.  The  origin 
of  this  usage  is  in  Rabbinical  books  thus  described.  When 
King  Solomon  built  the  temple,  he  had  two  doors  prepared; 
these  were  to  be  regarded  as  places  specially  consecrated  to 
the  spirit  of  kindness  in  man  ;  one  was  called  the  Bridegroom's 
door,  the  other  the  Mourner's,  On  Saturdays  the  crowd  used 
to  gather  before  these  doors,  to  see  who  would  enter  at  them. 
When  one  went  through  the  bridegroom's  door,  they  called  to 
him,  "  May  God,  whoso  throne  is  in  this  house,  rejoice  thee 
with  sons  and  daughters."  The  mourners  then  came  up  to  pass 
through  the  other  door,  and  the  usual  cry  to  them  was,  "May 
the  Owner  of  this  house  comfort  ye ; "  then  followed  those 
excommunicate  who  were  thus  addressed,  "  The  Lord  soften 
your  hearts  that  ye  yield  to  authority,  and  the  congregation 
reckon  ye  as  of  it  again."  After  the  destruction  of  the  Temple, 
the  Rabbis  instituted  the  practice  that  every  bridegroom  and 
every  mourner  should  visit  the  synagogue  or  the  lecture  hall,  in 
order  that  the  people,  always  numerous  there,  might  have  an 
opportunity  of  rejoicing  with  the  one  and  consoling  the  other. 


62  HEBREW   CHARACTEEISTIC8. 

So  much,  briefly,  concerning  the  marriage  customs  of  the 
time  for  which  the  Tahnud  and  Midraschim  must  be  regarded 
as  our  authorities.  We  see  ah*eady  that,  original  and  native 
as  all  these  are  in  the  main,  foreign  elements  have  crept  in,  and 
the  influence  of  neighboring  peoples  is  unmistakably  there. 
The  same  impression  and  to  a  much  greater  degree  comes  irre- 
sistibly into  the  mind  of  the  archaeologian  when  he  examines 
the  marriage  customs  of  the  later  centuries  up  to  our  own  time. 
"We  h^ve  already  remarked  above,  that  the  Spanish  and  French 
Jews  had  tournaments  at  their  weddings;  the  Sicilian  and  Ara- 
bian Jews,  torchlight  processions ;  and  in  what  follows  we  shall 
meet  with  many  a  custom  which  never  grew  up  on  purely  Jew- 
ish soil,  many  a  one  which,  after  becoming  accredited  among 
the  people,  had  to  be  eliminated  and  put  down  as  intrusive  and 
foreign  and  repugnant  to  religion  by  the  Rabbis. 

We  commence  our  delineation  of  marriage  among  the  later 
Jews  with  a  country  respecting  whose  Jewish  inhabitants,  not- 
withstanding the  early  date  of  their  settlement  in  it,  the  investi- 
gator is  supplied  with  but  scanty  material — western  and  southern 
India.  From  about  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  Jews  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  under  the  stress  of  the  persecution  set  on 
foot  by  the  Persian  King  Firuz,  had  repaired  to  Malabar,  Cey- 
lon, Cochin,  for  a  new  home,  and  there  formed  themselves  into 
independent  religions  congregations,  with  free  privilege  to  live 
and  worship,  and  the  Jews  still  to  be  found  in  these  parts  of 
India  and  adjacent  countries  can  be  no  other  than  descendants  of 
these  early  settlers.  Singular  good  fortune  has  preserved  for 
us  liturgical  forms  used  by  the  Cingalese  Jews,  which  were  sent 
by  lecheskel.  Rabbi  of  Cochin  on  the  Malabar  coast,  to  a  certain 
Tobias  Boas  at  the  Hague — Ceylon  was,  it  should  be  noted,  Dutch 


HEBREW   CHAKACTERI8TIC8.  63 

territory  at  the  time — and  printed  about  a  century  ago  in 
Amsterdam.  This  liturgical  book  gives  a  full  and  particular 
statement  of  the  marriage  ceremonies  among  Cingalese  Jews, 
which  covers  several  successive  pages.  Many  of  the  details 
are  more  fully  explained  by  a  translation  into  the  vernacular 
speech,  probably  an  Indian  dialect.  That  this  liturgy  as  a 
whole  dates  from  a  very  early  period,  when  Cingalese  Jews 
were  under  rulers  or  head-men  of  their  own  race,  appears  from 
a  strophe  of  a  song  contained  in  it. 

What  strikes  us  immediately  and  unmistakably  here  at  the 
first  glance  is  that  the  Cingalese  Jews  were  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  Rabbinical  in  their  religious  foundation.  Marriage 
festivals  are  celebrated  for  a  space  of  seven  days ;  the  bride 
bathes  in  a  bath  of  Rabbinical  prescription ;  there  are  the  brides- 
maids, and  seven  blessings,  there  is  the  marriage  deed,  Kethubah, 
aud  the  peculiar  form  and  method  of  pronouncing  the  benedic- 
tion. Everything  testifies  to  the  influence  of  Talmudic  dis- 
quisition and  precept.  The  observance  of  the  seven  days  is 
carried  out  in  the  severest  and  most  consequent  manner. 
There  are  separate  observances  and  songs  assigned  to  each  of 
these  days.  Songs  for  female  voices,  music  of  other  kinds 
abounded  in  the  festivities,  and  wax  tapers  were  lavishly  used. 
There  was  one  usage  peculiar  to  them  alone  ;  the  bride  was  on 
the  Monday  night  bathed,  and  then  escorted  to  the  sound 
of  tambourines  to  the  house  where  the  wedding  was  cele- 
brated ;  the  roll  of  the  law  was  opened,  while  she  stood  close 
by,  at  the  ten  commandments,  to  wliich  she  reverentially 
put  her  lips,  while  the  Rabbi  pronounced  over  her  a  special 
benediction  made  up  of  pointed  passages  from  the  Bible  On 
Tuesday  the  guests  assembled  at  the  house  where  the  wedding 


64  HEBREW    CHAKACTERISTICS. 

festival  is  going  on,  the  bridegroom  placed  gold  and  silver 
articles  in  some  vessel,  which  was  then  placed  on  the  fire  and 
the  contents  fused  into  one  mass.  The  old  men  made  a  solemn 
examination  of  this  mass  of  alloy,  while  the  women  vented 
their  feeling  in  concerted  song.  The  groom  and  his  "  best  men  " 
then  dressed  themselves  in  a  handsome  manner  and  sat  down 
to  a  banquet,  during  which  strains  of  various  kinds  were  sung 
to  them.  On  the  evening  of  the  same  dav  the  bridegroom, 
with  his  person  all  concealed  by  white  festive  garments,  attended 
by  his  groomsmen  similarly  clad,  was  led  into  the  synagog,ue 
to  the  sound  of  tambom'iues  ;  and  thence  escorted  back  by  the 
whole  congregation  to  the  bride's  house,  with  four  large  wax 
tapers  being  borne  in  front  of  the  whole  party.  On  the  way  all 
sorts  of  songs  were  sung.  Having  reached  the  bridal  house, 
they  led  the  bride  to  a  chair  specially  prepared  for  lier,  and 
covered  her  with  a  thick  vail.  The  bridegroom  took  a  place 
directly  opposite  her,  his  hand  holding  a  cup  filled  with  wine, 
whereto  the  wedding  ring  was  tied  by  some  fastening.  There- 
upon a  dialogue  in  a  sort  of  recitative  began  between  bride- 
groom and  congregation,  at  the  close  of  which  the  bridegroom 
spoke  the  specific  formula  which  effects  the  union  in  wedlock, 
and  put  the  ring  upon  the  bride's  finger.  The  Rabbi  then 
read  out  loud  the  Kethuba,  and  held  a  catechetical  dialogue  with 
the  bridegroom  as  to  the  obligations  incurred  in  marriage.  The 
bridegroom  signed  the  Kethuba,  two  witnesses  also  attesting  the 
fact  with  their  signatures,  and  handed  it,  pronouncing  a  special 
formula,  to  the  bride,  who  was  then  nnvailed  by  the  women, 
singing  a  song  while  they  did  it,  and  placed  by  them  on  a  couch. 
The  Rabbi  spoke  the  seven  blessings,  the  congregation  recited 
appointed  songs,  then   led  the  bridegroom    solemnly    to  the 


HEBREW    CHARACTERI88ICB.  65 

« 

bride  and  retired,  after  uttering  uU  sorts  of  wishes  for  theii- 
happiness.  Next  night — that  of  Thursday — and  on  the  follow- 
ing nights  the  guests  assembled  at  the  house  of  the  wedding,  and 
sang  special  songs  for  each  night  as  they  sat  at  supper.  On  the 
last  night,  finally,  the  young  couple  were  escorted  with  music  by 
men  and  women  to  the  house  of  God,  where  the  bridegroom 
himself  led  in  the  evening  prayer,  and  the;i  returned  with  the 
whole  cortege  to  his  dwelling,  where  the  close  of  the  festival  was 
solemnized  by  an  assemblage  of  guests  and  the  singing  of 
ciieerful  songs. 

Maimoni  makes  it  a  reproach  to  the  Jews  of  Egypt,  and  con- 
siders it  a  very  mischievous  circumstance,  that  in  their  weddings 
they  comply  with  strange  un-Jewish  usages,  and  even  perform 
a  sort  of  mummery.  The  bride  covers  her  head  with  a  helmet, 
takes  a  sword  in  her  hand,  and  so  travestied,  dances  at  the  head 
of  the  procession  of  the  marriage  guests.  The  bridegroom 
then  allows  himself  to  be  dressed  up  in  women's  garments  l)y 
persons  of  that  sex,  skilled  in  matters  of  the  toilet,  female 
clothing  is  put  on  the  boys  who  are  present,  and  their  nails 
stained  with  henna.  Maimoni's  narrative  informs  us  that, 
although  men  of  distinction  in  Egypt  clung  with  great  per- 
tinacity to  these  usages,  and  the  people  in  particular  had  become 
deeply  attached  to  them  from  hab^t,  he  succeeded,  in  spite  of 
this,  in  bringing  about  their  complete  extirpation. 

Concerning  marriage  ceremonies  in  Bagdad,  Persia,  and 
Northern  Africa,  we  have  information  from  "  Benjamin  " — 
whose  statements,  however,  are  to  be  used  with  great  circum- 
spection— in  the  work  which  he  entitles  his  "  Journeys.''  (Eight 
Years  in  Asia  and  Africa,  pp.  Ill,  112;  269-270;  276,  277.) 
In  a  general  way  the  usages  which  he  reports  bear  a  certain 


HEBREW    CHARACTEEISTICS. 


affinity    to    the    marriage    ceremonies   peculiar   to    Oriental 
peoples. 

The  marriage  usages  of  the  Jews  in  European  coimtries,  so 
far  as  our  available  sources  of  information  enable  us  to  judge, 
do  not  difier  materially.  That  here  and  there  national  and 
non-Jewish  customs  should  and  did  creep  even  into  the  syna- 
gogue is  easily  intelligible  ;  the  differences  we  do  find  are 
principally  of  a  liturgical  kind.  Of  such  liturgical  specialties 
Abudraham  in  his  work  mentions  some  as  peculiar  to  the  con- 
gregations of  Seville,  Toledo,  and  other  Spanish  cities.  The 
marriage  ceremonies  of  the  German  Jews  in  the  middle  ages 
are  described  by  R.  Eleazar  b.  Jehuda  of  Worms.  One  very 
striking  circumstance  is,  that  they  were  in  the  habit  of  solemn- 
izing marriage  on  the  day  dedicated  to  the  Teutonic  Yenus, 
Freia,  Friday.*  When  the  bride  solemnly  enters  the  bride- 
groom's house,  he  meets  her  at  tlie  threshold,  takes  her  hand 
and  lays  it  on  the  lintel  of  the  house  door,  probably  for  the 
same  reason  for  which  the  Romans  used  to  hand  the  keys  of 
the  house  to  the  bride  at  the  moment  when  the  bridesmaids 
lifted  her  over  the  threshold,  to  signify  that  she  was  mistress  of 
that  house.     After  the  marriage  ceremony,  the  bridal  pair  sat 

♦  The  translator  cannot  forbear  remarking  that  the  writer  of  this  essay  is  in 
error  when  he  represents  Freia  as  the  analogue  of  the  Latin  Venus.  Had 
she  been  so,  it  would  scarcely  have  happened  that  Hebrews  would  have  adopted 
her  day  for  their  weddings,  on  the  contrary,  they  would  have  carefully  avoided 
it.  The  Latin  "  Venus"  is  physical  in  her  attributes  chiefly,  though  not  exclu- 
sively. The  Teutonic  "Freia,"  on  the  contrary,  represents  all  that  is  at  once 
ideal  and  legitimate  in  love  and  marriage.  But  in  the  Christian  middle  ages  it  is 
very  little  probable  that  her  attributes  or  herself  were  much  remembered  by 
any  Germans,  save  perhaps  by  those  of  the  peasant  class,  among  whom  antique 
heathendom  has  preserved  a  feeble  cryptic  existence  throughout  the  centuries. 


HEBREW    CHAEACTERISTIC6.  67 

down  to  a  special  meal,  principally  composed  of  honey  and 
cheese,  the  motive  of  which  was  the  proverbial  speech, 
"  honey  and  milk  are  under  thy  tongue."  Besides  the  fruit- 
seeds,  salt  too  was  strewn  about  in  the  house  where  the  mar- 
riage was  performed,  to  characterize  symbolically  the  covenant 
that  was  entered  into  as  one  that  was  to  last  for  eternity,  and 
from  which  there  could  never  be  release.  On  the  Sunday  fol- 
lowing the  wedding  day,  the  newly  married  man  delivered,  on 
the  very  instant  of  his  return  home  from  synagogue,  to  his 
young  spouse  his  cloak,  girdle,  and  hat,  by  way  of  open  recog- 
nition that  she  was  henceforth  a  sharer  in  all  that  was  his. 
Of  the  betrothals  and  weddings  of  the  Jews  of  Frankfort 
Schudt  discourses  in  his  "  Jiidische  Merkwiirdigkeiten,"  throw- 
ing carelessly  together  old  things  and  new  after  his  fashion. 
Concerning  the  usages  of  the  Jews  of  Rhineland,  in  particular 
of  Mayence,  we  have  full  information  from  Maharil  in  his 
Minhagim.  "What  is  to  be  especially  noticed  in  regard  to 
these,  is  that  the  marriage  ceremony  of  a  virgin  bride  was  per- 
formed in  the  synagogue  on  the  Bimah,  that  of  a  widow  in  the 
outer  court  of  the  temple.  No  particular  stress  is  laid  on  the 
reading  of  the  marriage  deed,  the  Kethuba.  In  the  Kol  Bo  it 
is  required  that  the  Kethuba  should  be  translated  into  the  ver- 
nacular. 

As  to  marriage  among  the  Karaites,  it  is  to  be  observed  that, 
as  was  the  case  generally  with  their  whole  doctrinal  system, 
many  rabbinical  elements,  however  forbidden,  got  in  one  way 
or  another.  Speaking  generally,  it  differs  but  little  from  the 
common  forms  of  marriage  in  vogue  among  the  Oriental  Jews. 
Ashes  were  strewn  on  the  heads  of  the  bridal  couple,  to  com- 
memorate the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.     The  seven  blessings 


68  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

n-erc  adopted  without  alteration,  and  supplemented  by  numer- 
ous passages  from  the  Bible.  The  already  mentioned  formula 
of  the  seven  benedictions  occurs  among  them  also.  .  The  brides- 
maids and  groomsmen  (paranymphs)  are  mentioned '  both  in 
the  liturgy  and  in  many  songs.  The  Kethuba,  or,  as  the  Kara- 
ites call  it,  Sh'tar,  was  composed  in  Hebrew.  Among  other 
things  the  married  pair  bound  themselves  expressly  in  it,  if 
they  ever  should  reach  the  holy  land,  conscientiously  to  keep 
the  Jewish  festivals  according  to  antique  usage,  viz. :  by  care- 
fully observing  the  changes  of  the  moon. 

The  marriages  of  Jews  of  quite  recent  times  have  only  this 
one  peculiarity  that  need  engage  attention,  that  instead  of  the 
old  tone  of  natural  and  religious  joy  which  sprang  from  the 
heart,  we  now  too  often  see  the  stiff  etiquette  of  the  salon^  and 
it  is  only  in  a  few  localities  that  the  old  forms,  artless  and 
happy  as  they  were,  have  held  their  ground  against  the  gen- 
eral tendency  to  sublimate  and  refine  away  what  antiquity  has 
handed  down.  Particularly  interesting  in  this  connection  is 
the  account  from  the  pen  of  a  French  tourist,  of  a  Jewish  mar- 
riage celebrated  not  long  ago  in  Alsatia.  Here  we  see  the 
"  Mashaliks,"  who  have  so  long  disappeared  from  our  wed- 
dings, still  amusing  the  guests  with  their  improvised  discourses, 
abounding  in  surprising  turns  and  twists  of  thought ;  the  cos- 
tumes, so  singular  and  of  such  venerable  antiquity,  defy  the 
universal  supremacy  of  French  fashion,  and  the  man  of  the 
world  from  Paris  who  witnesses  and  reports  the  scene,  tells  us 
that  he  could  not  help  fancying  that  he  sat  at  table  with  ghosts 
that  had  risen  straight  out  of  the  grave  of  the  preceding  cen- 
tury. 


ON 

Interment  oe  the  Dead. 

IN  POST-BIBLICAL  JUDAISM. 

By    Dr.  JOSEPH    PERLES. 


(Jt)n  Itxtjermewt  of  the  ^ead 

IN     POST -BIBLICAL     JUDAISM 


A    STUDY    IN"    ARCHEOLOGY. 


By  Dr.   JOSEPH    PERLES. 


|HE  usages  connected  with  the  rendering  of  the 
last  honors  to  tlie  dead  in  post-biblical  Judaism 
were  subject  to  the  modifications  necessarily  caused 
by  a  period  wherein  all  things  were  somewhat  rapidly  trans- 
formed. The  primitive  simplicity  of  Jewish  burial  received 
accretions  or  enrichments  from  foreign  sources,  by  reason 
of  contact  with  the  Zend  religion,  with  Islam,  and  the 
later  Kabbala ;  but  it  never  lost  its  principal  and  leading 
features  of  gentleness  and  tranquillity,  due  as  these  were, 
originally,  to,  and  necessarily  bound  up  with,  the  concep- 
tions of  Judaism  concerning  the  dignity  of  humanity  and  the 
splendor^  of  its  ultimate  destiny.  For  wlint  Judaism  saw  on 
the  death-bed  of  man  or  woman  was  no  mere  atom  losing  its 
individuality  by  being  merged  in  the  vast  substance  of  the  uni- 
verse, but  a  being  that  had  reached  a  higher  stage  of  existence, 
about  to  cast  oft'  the  shell  which  on  earth  had  enveloped  the 


72  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

imperisliable  soul,  and  to  enter  on  the  pure  sphere  of  the  spirit- 
ual life.     Hence,  originally,  mourning  for  the  dead  was  carefully 
kept  within  bounds,  and  the  leading  feature  of  observance  was 
the  bestowal  of  solemn  and  anxious  care  in  the  disposition  of 
the  corpse,  so  lately  the  vessel  wherein  the  immortal  part  was 
contained ;  while  the  departed  spirit  itself  was,  so  to  speak,  left 
alone  and  undisturbed  to  its  peace  and  rest.     It  was  not  until 
a  later  time,  when  the  masses  for  the  dead  of  the  Christian 
Church,  and  the  sensuous  notions  of  the  Koran  and  the  Kabbala, 
began  to  have  their  influence  on  Judaism,  that  prayers  for  the 
dead  and  other  foreign  usages  accompanied  obtrusively  the 
flight  of  the  spirit  to  the  world  beyond.     But  the  corpse  was  an 
object  of  devout  and  tender  respect  only  because  it  was  thought 
that  between  it  and  the  soul  that  had  taken  wing  some  continu- 
ing relation   needs  must  be,  because  the  Hebrew  mind  was 
possessed  by  the  poetic  thought  that  this  world  and  the  world 
to  come  held  out,  as  it  were,  arms  to  embrace  each  other,  and 
that  they  even  had  lips  which  could  meet  with  a  parting  kiss. 
Hence,  it  was  thought  that  tlie  separation  of  the  two  elements 
of  earthly  existence,  body  and  soul,  could  not  be  sudden  and 
abrupt,  but  that  the  latter  still  for  some  days  liovered  and  lin- 
gered around  the  mansion  which  had  sheltered  it  so  long,  taking 
its  final  departure  only  then  when  Death  had  begun  to  set  his 
seal  irrevocably  and  certainly  on  his  work  in  the  visible  marks  of 
corruption.     It  resulted  from  such  ideas  that  any  desecration 
of  the  srave,  such  as  the  Parsees  were  wont  to  practice  in  their 
detestation  of  physical  interment,  was  regarded  by  Hebrews  with 
horror  and  aversion  as  profanity  to  tlie  dead,  and  a  wicked 
disturbance  of  the  "  eternal  sleep"  (Jerem.  li-  39,  57);  while, 
on  tlie  otlier  hand,  complete  preservation  of  the  physical  frame 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 


by  embalmment  or  other  means,  as  in  vogue  among  Egyptians 
and  other  peoples,  was  carefully  avoided.  Embalmment,  it  is 
possible,  may  have  been  employed  on  very  rare  occasions,  and 
in  the  case  of  some  few  highly  distinguished  personages,  and 
there  are  some  other  alleged  cases  of  preservation  of  the  corpse 
by  such  methods ;  but  these  are  either  to  be  regarded  as  excep- 
tional, or,  more  probably,  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to 
fable  and  legend  alone.  AYe  are  told,  for  example,  that  the 
corpse  of  Eleazar  ben  Simon  was  kept  by  his  wife,  according  to 
his  injunction,  more  than  twenty  years,  in  the  garret  of  his 
house;  but  the  reason  of  this  is  expressly  given,  because  he  did 
not  wish  to  be  submitted  to  the  discourteous  or  disrespectful 
mode  of  interment  intended  for  him  by  his  hostile  and  embittered 
fellow-teacher ;  while  the  stories  that  Herod  kept  the  corpse 
of  a  girl  preserved  seven  years  long  in  honey,  and  that  Chija 
ben  Abuhu  kept  the  skull  of  King  Joiachin  wrapped  up  in  silk 
in  a  bureau,  bear  their  legendary  character  unmistakably  upon 
their  face. 

That  some  solemn  disposition  of  the  mortal  remains  should  be 
made  was  so  natural  and  inevitable  a  claim  of  human  feelmg, 
that,  originally  and  at  the  outset,  man  saw  no  need  of  seeking 
for  it  the  sanction  of  religious  law  or  of  considering  it  as  founded 
in  scriptural  injunction.  It  was  only  at  a  later  time,  when  the 
Jewish  religion  was  at  best  but  tolerated  by  the  side  of  that  of 
Zoroaster,  that  the  necessity  was  felt  in  Jewish  circles  of  enter- 
ing into  a  formal  justification  of  their  own  practice  of  burial,  so 
precious  to  themselves,  so  detested  by  their  opponents.  King 
Sapor  asks  R.  Chama  to  give  him  passages  from  the  Bible  sup- 
porting the  practice  of  consigning  bodies  to  the  earth  ;  and  m 
consequence  of  this  request  the  Jewish  doctors  of  the  law  pro- 


74  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

posed  to  themselves  the  qnestion,  what  was  the  leading  motive 
of  burial ;  whether  the  feeling  so  prevalent  among  most  of  the 
peoples  of  antiquity,  that  there  was  dishonor  and  shame  in  per- 
mitting the  corpse  to  putrefy  above  the  earth ;  or  rather  that  the 
corpse  ought  to  be  returned  to  the  bosom  of  mother  earth,  in 
some  sort,  for  purification  from  earthly  offense.  According 
as  this  question  is  decided  one  way  or  the  other,  practice  will 
differ  in  the  ritual  of  interment;  but  the  imderlying  moral 
thought  connected  with  the  practice  is  in  no  way  affected  by  the 
answer.  The  second  view  supports  the  well-known  preference 
for  interment  'in  the  Holy  Land,  to  whose  soil  was  attributed 
a  specially  atoning  power ;  while  it  was  the  first  view  that  led 
the  Rabbis  in  Jamnia  to  insert  in  the  liturgy  a  special  form  of 
praise  and  blessing  commemorative  of  the  interment,  happily 
after  difficulty  brought  about,  of  those  who  had  fallen  on  the 
day  of  Betar.*  So  highly  was  this  pious  observance,  indeed, 
esteemed  in  the  Jewish  world,  that  the  Agadists  even  referred 
the  passage  of  the  Bible,  "  Abraham  gave  all  that  was  his  to 
Isaac,"  to  the  place  of  burial  which  he  left  to  be  hereditary  for 
the  family.  In  all  the  towns  there  were,  at  certain  places, 
special  subscription-boxes  for  burial  expenses,  and  every  one 
who  remained  for  nine  months  in  the  locality  was  under  the 
duty  of  contributing. 

To  comprehend  aright  the  spirit  of  noble  resignation  which 
is  embodied  in  Jewish  funeral  ceremonials,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that,  according  to  the  apprehension  ©f  the  Jewish  sages, 

*  The  fall  of  that  fortress  ("135  C.  E. )  put  a  terrible  end  to  the  rising  of  the 
Jews,  led  by  Bar  Cochba,  against  Boman  tyranny  ;  it  is  said  that  more  than  half 
a  million  of  the  devoted  race  either  lost  their  lives  or  were  sold  into  slavery  at . 
that  catastrophe. 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  75 

this  world  is  to  be  compared  to  a  dwelling  in  which  man  is 
received  as  a  temporary  guest,  while  the  passage  to  the  life 
beyond  was  always  regarded  as  leading  to  the  abode  of  ever- 
lasting peace,  and  that  life  itself  as  to  be  passed  in  the  house 
of  eternity ;  for  it  was  by  that  expressive  name  that,  following 
herein  the  Egyptians,  they  called  "  God's  acre,"  or  the  burial 
place,  where,  according  to  the  expression  of  the  Psalmist,  those 
who  have  reached  their  last  home  find  their  everlasting  mansion 
in  the  grave.  To  disturb  the  rest  of  this  second  home  was 
regarded  as  a  proof  of  the  most  extreme  hardness  of  heart,  and 
the  barbarous  conduct  of  the  Parsees,  who  in  their  fanaticism 
tore  the  corpses  even  of  strangers  to  their  faith  from  their  graves 
that  they  might  be  devoured,  according  to  Parsee  usage,  by 
birds  of  prey,  drew  many  a  cry  of  anguish  from  Jewish  breasts. 
"  Sink  my  coflin  deep,  deep  into  the  earth,"  says  dying  Jose 
b.  Kisma  to  his  disciples,  "  for  a  Parsee  horse  is  haltered  to 
every  date-palm  of  Babylon,  and  there  is  no  cotiin  in  Palestine 
out  of  which  some  Median  charger  does  not  feed  as  from  a 
manger."  "  Let  my  burial-clothes  be  but  scanty,"  is  the  last 
injunction  of  E..  Chiskija,  "  and  let  the  grave  be  deep  that 
receives  my  cofiin."  And  Simeon  b.  Jochai  exclaims,  "  When 
tliou  seest  the  steed  of  a  Zoroastrian  trampling  graves  in  the  soil 
of  Holy  Land,  know  that  our  miseries  have  reached  their 
climax,  and  expect  at  any  moment  Messiah's  hour !  "  And 
Rabba  b.  Samuel  is  of  opinion  that  tlie  threat  in  the  Book 
of  Samuel  (i.  12,  15),  that  "  God's  chastisement  will  strike  ye 
and  your  forefathers,"  was  visibly  fulfilled  in  the  desecration 
of  Jewish  corpses  by  Parsees. 

After  these  prefatory  remarks  we  now  proceed  to  deal  par- 
ticularly with  our  special  subject. 


76  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

The  dying  person  wrestles,  as  it  were,  with  Death.  This  last 
agony  must  not  be  aggravated  by  outcries  and  lamentations  of 
those  around  the  bed  of  death,  nor  may  the  release  of  the  body 
from  its  final  trial  be  accelerated  one  instant  by  the  slightest 
touch.  The  death  that  sets  it  free  approaches  at  last  in  the  form 
of  the  Angel  of  Death,  represented  in  imagination  and  fable  as 
a  being  almost  entirely  made  up  of  widely-opened  eyes,  and  as 
standing  during  the  last  moments  of  life  at  the  head  of  the 
dying  creature  with  a  drawn  sword  in  his  hand.  On  the 
point  of  the  sword  there  is  a  drop  of  gall,  at  the  sight  of 
which  the  dying  person  opens  the  mouth  in  terror;  death 
comes  at  the  very  instant  that  he  swallows  this  drop  of  gall, 
and  this  drop  it  is,  also,  wliich  works  a  little  later  that 
alteration  of  the  countenance  that  follows  death.  Those  who 
have  been  present  at  the  death-struggle  then  tear  their  clothes. 
After  the  breath  has  departed  the  eyes  are  closed,  usually  by 
the  eldest  son,  the  fallen  jaw  is  raised  and  the  mouth  bound 
up,  the  corpse  itself  bathed,  anointed,  and,  in  order  to  check 
too  rapid  corruption,  covered  with  vessels  of  metal  or  glass,  or 
else  with  salt,  and  deposited  on  bare  earth,  or  on  a  layer  of 
refrigerative  salt. 

As  now  among  Jews,  so  of  old ;  in  this  respect,  that  few 
were  regarded  as  endowed  with  sufficient  tact  and  intelligence 
to  perform  the  delicate  task  of  bearing  news  of  a  death  to  those 
concerned.  The  inhabitants  of  Sepphoris  threatened  death  to 
any  one  who  should  bring  them  news  of  the  dissolution  of  R. 
Jehuda  Ilanasi.  Bar  Kappara  undertook  to  do  it,  but  conveyed 
tli(3  intelligencte  in  figurative  language.  He  appeared  before 
them  with  covered  head  and  torn  garments,  and  lifted  up  his 
voice  in  lamentation.     "  The  angels  above    and  the  mighty 


PIKBRKW    CHARACTERISTICS. 


77 


men  here  have  liad  a  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  tablets 
of  the  law,  the  angels  have  carried  off  the  victory,  and  borne 
away  the  tablets  !  ''  "  Rabbi  is  dead,"  interrupted  the  Seppho- 
rjeans.  "  It  is  ye  who  have  said  it,"  answered  Bar  Kappara 
with  a  gesture  of  assent,  "  not  I." 

Popular  belief  loved  to  dignify  the  death  of  special  favorites 
or  of  the  specially  illustrious  by  miraculous  narratives,  or  else 
to  bring  real  events  into  some  sort  of  connection  with  their 
last  moments.  When  R.  Acha  died,  says  the  legend,  stars 
were  visible  in  the  clear  light  of  noon  ;  when  R.  Chanina  of 
Bath-Hauran  died,  the  sea  of  Tiberias  divided  itself  like  the 
Red  Sea  of  old;  at  the  death  of  R.  Samuel  b.  Yizchak,  a 
storm  tore  up  the  cedars  of  Palestine  by  the  roots ;  at  that  of 
R.  Jose  b.  Chalafta,  streams  of  blood  flowed  through  the 
streets  of  Lydda ;  when  R.  Jose  was  torn  away  from  the 
world,  the  citadel  of  Tiberias  fell  with  a  crash ;  on  the  death- 
day  of  R.  Chija  meteoric  stones  fell  abundantly  from  the  sky ; 
on  that  of  R.  Hamnuna,  hail-storms  devastated  the  neighbor- 
hood far  and  wide ;  in  the  year  of  the  death  of  R.  Meshar- 
shija,  thorns  grew  out  of  the  date-palms;  and  when  R. 
Abuhu  went  to  his  last  home,  the  very  pillars  in  the  buildings 
of  Caesarea  could  not  refrain  from  tears. 

The  precepts  of  religion  enjoined  that  bursts  of  grief  for  the 
dead  should  be  as  much  as  possible  restrained  and  moderated, 
and  that  mourning  for  them  should  not  take  exaggerated 
forms;  but  natural  impulse  and  the  contagious  example  of 
neighbor-peoples  in  this  respect  sometimes  prevented  the 
voice  of  reason  from  being  heard.  R.  Akiba,  coming  quite 
abruptly  upon  the  procession  carrying  R.  Eliesar  b.  Kisri  to 
the  grave,  was  moved  to  scourge  his  own  body  till  the  blood 


78  HEBEEW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

flowed ;  and  R.  Hamnuna  found  it  necessary  to  remind  once 
more  the  women  of  his  time  that  it  was  a  forbidden  thing  to 
tear  out  their  hair  when  one  dear  to  them  had  died. 

When  one  died,  the  news  was  proclaimed  abroad  to  the 
sound  of  a  trumpet ;  and  the  public,  where  the  death  had 
occurred,  participated  in  the  mourning,  for  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  locality  refrained,  though  probably  only  for  a  very  brief 
time,  from  their  usual  labors.  But  in  the  case  of  men  of  distinc- 
tion, the  mourning  was  far  more  extensive.  When  a  teacher  of 
the  law  died,  his  school  was  closed  ;  when  the  Ab-beth-din  died, 
instruction  ceased  for  a  while,  as  of  course,  in  all  the  school- 
houses  of  the  city  ;  when  the  Nasi  died,  it  was  the  same  with 
all  the  schools  of  the  State. 

Between  death  and  interment  there  was  but  a  short  interval. 
It  was  a  special  privilege  or  attribute  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem 
that  no  corpse  was  permitted  to  pass  a  night  within  its  walls. 
The  cruelty  of  such  quick  burial  was  more  apparent  than  real, 
for  it  was  mitigated  by  the  circumstance  that,  as  we  shall  sec 
later,  the  corpses  were  deposited  in  open  graves,  and  carefully 
inspected  for  several  days,  to  provide  for  the  rare  case  when 
death  had  not  really  occurred.  It  is  a  very  one-sided  interpre- 
tation of  the  law  that  finds  in  this  usage  any  warrant  or  justi- 
fication for  the  very  altered  circumstances  of  subsequent  times. 
Bachya  ben  Ascher  and  Chaskuni  declare  expressly  that  it 
was  applicable  only  in  Palestine  itself;  while  Menasseh  ben 
Israel,  who,  in  spite  of  his  extensive  general  culture,  was  still 
controlled  by  many  prejudices,  pronounces  for  its  unqualified 
retention. 

In  this  interval  measures  were  taken  preparatory  to  the 
actual  consignment  to  earth.     The  dead  body  was  bathed  and 


HEBREW   CHARACTERISTICS. 


79 


anointed,  on  which  occasion  drugs  and  spices  of  the  most  vari- 
ous kinds  were  employed  in  the  most  abundant  measure  ;  myr- 
tle, aloes ;  later,  also  hyssop,  oil  of  roses,  and  rose-water,  with 
carefully  prescribed  ceremonies  and  forms  of  prayer.  Great 
stress  was  laid  on  the  point  of  bathing  the  corpse  ;  and  it  is 
related,  in  pity  or  in  accusation,  of  the  Babylonians  (probably 
the  Jews  of  Babylon)  that  their  dead  go  to  the  grave  without 
due  honor,  with  no  torch-light  procession,  and  even  unbathed. 
The  body  thus  bathed  and  anointed,  was  wrapped  in  gar- 
ments specially  appropriated  to  the  corpse.  To  be  consigned 
naked  to  the  grave  was  thought,  among  Jews  as  among  many 
other  peoples,  dishonor  and  shame  ;  and  the  connections  of  the 
deceased  considered  it  a  meritorious  thing  and  expressive  of 
the  extent  of  their  grief,  to  put  a  quantity  of  valuable  garments 
upon  the  mortal  remains  ;  in  this  proceeding  they  were  usually 
a  little  hampered  by  the  remonstrances  of  sensible  friends,  for 
the  garments  which  had  once  touched  the  corpse  could  never 
be  used  afterwards  for  any  other  purpose.  There  was  so 
much  expense  and  display  in  this  matter  of  dressing  corpses, 
that,  as  the  Talmud  drastically  puts  it,  the  interment  of  the 
corpse  was  frequently  a  more  serious  matter  to  relatives  than 
the  death  itself,  and  that  many  who  could  not  stand  the  enor- 
mous cost,  and  yet  did  not  like  not  to  conform  to  existing 
usage,  solved  the  matter  by  abandoning  their  homes,  leaving 
the  corpses  of  their  relatives  to  such  interment  as  the  town 
would  bestow.  In  order  to  put  some  check  on  these  abuses, 
R.  Gamaliel  left  orders  that  he  should  be  buried  only  in  linen 
garments.  This  good  example  was  not  without  its  effect,  and 
in  R.  Papa's  times  people  had  got  so  far  as  not  to  feel  any  hesita- 
tion about  wrapping  a  corpse  in  an  overcoat  which  only  cost  a 


80  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

sus*  R.  Chiskija  also  warmly  opposed  the  practice  of  heap- 
ing a  mass  of  garments  upon  corpses,  and  we  are  told  that  he 
was  interred  in  a  simple  linen  cloth.  It  was  customary  also  to 
use  the  worn-out  wrappings  of  the  rolls  of  the  law,  which 
could  not  lawfully  be  applied  to  any  ordinary  purpose,  for 
burial  garments.  As  regards  the  color  of  these  costumes  of 
the  dead,  usage  differed  greatly.  R.  Josia  wished  to  be  con- 
signed to  earth  in  white  robes.  R.  Jannai  said  before  his 
death  to  his  sons  :  "  Wrap  me  neither  in  white  nor  black  gar- 
ments, for  I  would  not  apjjcar  as  a  mourner  among  the  joyous, 
or  as  joyous  among  mourners,  but  put  me  parti-colored  gar- 
ments on."  R.  Jochanan  uttered  a  similar  request.  R.  Jir- 
mija's  desire  was  to  be  wrapped  in  a  white  stuff  weaved  of 
prickly  plants,  with  shoes  on  his  feet  and  a  staff  in  his  hand, 
and  to  be  laid  on  his  side,  in  order  that  he  might  be  com- 
pletely prepared  for  the  resurrection.  In  the  middle  ages  red 
burial-clothes  were  in  vogue  as  well  as  white. 

Kings  wished  their  very  burial  costume  to  bear  witness  to 
their  departed  grandeur.  Accordingly  Herod  was  borne  to 
the  grave  on  a  golden  bier  inlaid  with  a  great  number  of 
precious  stones.  The  pall  and  tlie  burial-garments  were  of 
Tyrian  purple.  On  his  head  the  golden  crown  was  fastened 
above  the  diadem,  and  in  the  immovable  right  hand  was  seen 
the  royal  sceptre. 

The  face  of  the  corpse  was  originally  covered  and  concealed 
only  in  those  cases  where  the.  features  were  distorted,  but  later, 
in  the  case  of  all,  with  the  single  exception  only  of  a  man 
betrothed  to  niarry.  The  corpse  lay  in  the  coffin  with  face 
turned  upwards,  with  the  hands  folded  on  the  breast,  and  lege 

*  The  name  of  a  small  coin. 


HEBREW   CHARACTERISTICS.  81 

stretched  out  to  their  full  length.  Universal  usage  among  the 
Jews  rejected  any  oblique  attitude  for  the  corpse,  or  a  sitting 
one,  or  one  in  which  the  limbs  were  gathered  together  as  of  one 
cowering.  It  would  appear  that,  as  a  rule,  the  hair  was  cut 
from  the  head,  and  it  is  so  expressly  stated  in  the  case  of  the 
betrothed  girl.  It  was  not  unusual  with  women  to  bequeath 
their  hair,  by  way  of  legacy,  to  designated  persons. 

Besides  their  garments,  it  was  customary  to  give  the  dead,  or 
hang  on  then-  coffin,  borrowing  herein  custom  from  the  neigh- 
boring peoples,  divers  objects  which  they  had  used  in  life ;  such 
as  their  inkstand,  their  writing-pen,  their  writing-table,  their 
keys.  This  usage  was  especially  observed  in  the  case  of  those 
who  died  betrothed  or  childless.  It  appears  to  have  been  a 
special  or  exclusive  practice  of  the  royal  family,  to  deposit  large 
sums  of  money  or  valuable  ornaments  in  the  grave  with  the 
dead.  Thus,  Herod  buried  the  murdered  Aristobulus  with 
particularly  fine  spices  and  other  exceptionally  valuable  things. 
Hyrcanus  opened  the  grave  of  David  and  robbed  it  of  three 
thousand  silver  talents.  Herod,  who  tried  the  same  thing  a 
second  time,  found  no  money,  but  gold  ornaments  of  remarkable 
beauty  and  value. 

The  coffin  in  which  the  dead  was  consigned  to  earth  was 
either  of  wood,  most  frequently  cedar,  or  of  stone.  The  kind 
of  coffin  most  frequently  in  use  was  made  of  separate  planks. 
The  coffin  of  bronze  in  which,  according  to  legend,  the  Egyptians 
sank  Joseph's  corpse  in  the  Nile,  or  deposited  it,  according  to 
another  version,  in  the  labyrinth,  is  suggestive  of  Egyptian 
rather  than  Jewish  circumstances.  To  bury  in  a  shnple  matting 
of  reeds  was  regarded  as  dishonoring  the  body,  and  involved,  in 
popular  belief,  the  consequence  that  the  soul  of  one  who  had 


82  HEBREW    CHAKACTERISTICS. 

received  such  sepulture  could  never  extricate  itself  from  the 
tomb  and  join  the  multitudinous  company  of  invisible  spirits 
who  were  always  traversing  the  world.     It  has  been  already 
remarked  that  the  coffin  was  decorated  with  all  sorts  of  orna- 
ments, emblems,  crowns  or    garlands.     On    the  coffin  of  dis- 
tinguished scholars,  like  R.  Huna,  and  of  pious  kings  eminent 
for  service  to  the  community,  like  Chiskija,  a  roll  of  the  law 
was  deposited,  to  illustrate  the  zeal  wherewith  the  dead  had 
prosecuted  either  the  study  or  the  application  of  the  truths  of 
religion.     This  custom  was  modified  later,  and  the  roll  of  the 
law  merely  carried  in  front  of  the  bier  to  the  grave.     On  the 
coffin   of  one  who  died  excommunicate,  the  supreme  court  of 
law  appointed  a  person  to  deposit  a  stone  in  token  of  expiation. 
The  Rabbis  of  the  middle  ages,  however,  regarded  death  as  a 
complete  purgation  of  the  sentence  of  excommunication,  and, 
accordingly,  abolished  entirely  the  Talmudic  custom  of  depos- 
iting the  stone.     Above  the  coffin  of  those  who  died  betrothed, 
canopies  profusely  decorated  were  raised ;  and,  generally,  the 
interment  of  such  persons  was  marked  by  the  special  honor  of 
lavish  expenditure  and   ornament.     The  coffin    was   also   fre- 
quently crowned  with  garlands  of  myrtle  twigs;  and  incense, 
originally  but  sparingly  or  exceptionally  employed,  was  later, 
in  the  case  of  persons  of  rank,  used  customarily,  with  the  most 
lavish  unrestraint.     A  sort  of  libation  of  honor,  on  the  bier  of  the 
dead,  may  have  been  practiced  occasionally.     The  French  Jews 
of  the  middle  ages  were  in  the  habit  of  having  their  coffins  made 
from  the  table  which  had  borne  testimony  in  life   to   their 
generous   hospitality.     In   Spain,  and   particularly  in  Gerona, 
according  to  the  statement  of  R.   Nissim  ben  Reuben,  coffins 
were  gradually  disused,  and  the  dead  body,  without  any  other 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  83 

envelope,  consigned  to  its  last  resting-place  in  earth.  This  cus- 
tom, which  is  of  mystical  significance,  has  maintained  itself  even 
to  the  present  day. 

The  burial  procession,  which  went  from  the  house  of  the 
departed  to  the  cemetery — God's  acre,  so  called — was  the 
object  of  careful  attention  and  special  care.  Pains  were  taken 
to  have  as  many  as  possible  take  part  in  it.  Everyl)ody  who 
met  it  on  its  way,  w^as  in  duty  bound  to  join  and  accompany  it 
to  the"  grave.  Even  the  study  of  the  law,  on  which  such  store 
was  set,  was  to  be  interrupted  in  order  to  pay  these  last  honors 
to  the  dead.  At  all  points  where  the  procession  passed  spec- 
tators rose  from  their  seats,  as  a  mark  of  respect  to  the  dead, 
or,  as  others  explain,  to  the  company  bound  on  this  errand  of 
grief.  According  to  the  views  of  the  ancients,  the  procession 
to  the  grave  was  adequate  and  satisfactory  only  in  the  case  where 
it  extended  itself,  at  least  espalier-wise,  from  the  very  house  of 
mourning  to  the  place  of  sepulture  itself,  by  such  additions. 
But  when  it  is  computed  that  sometimes  the  numbers  of  those 
who  thus  of  duty  and  obligation  joined  in  its  passage  to  the 
grave,  mounted  up  even  to  many  thousands,  this  must  surely 
be  no  more  than  somewhat  sportive  hyperbole. 

The  mode  of  carrying  the  corpse  was  dependent  upon  the 
age  of  the  deceased  person.  Children  who  died  before  the  end 
of  their  first  month,  and  who  were  still  regarded  as  mere 
embryos,  were  taken  without  any  special  ceremony  of  mom-ning 
to  a  burial-place,  as  it  would  seem,  specially  reserved  for  such 
cases.  Children  of  more  than  a  month  were  carried  to  their 
resting-place  in  a  coffin  under  the  arm ;  those  who  had  lived 
more  than  one  full  year,  on  a  bier  carried  on  men's  shoulders. 
In  the  case  of  grown-up  people,  a  distinction  was  originally  made 


84  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

between  people  of  large  or  slender  means,  tlie  former  being 
conveyed  in  a  carriage,  the  latter  on  a  simple  bier;  at  a  later 
day,  the  carriage  was  used  without  exception  for  all  alike  ;  the 
bier,  which  in  the  great  majority  of  instances  was  of  wood,  in 
the  case  of  persons  of  very  high  ranlv,  of  precious  metal  highly 
chased  and  decorated  in  the  richest  manner. 

There  is  a  legend  that  King  Chiskija  caused  his  father  to  be 
carried  to  the  grave  upon  a  very  simple  military  or  field  bed- 
stead, as  a  token  that  atonement  was  needed  for  the  sinful  life 
he  had  led.  The  bearers  of  the  bier,  who  went  with  naked  feet, 
were  frequently  changed  in  the  passage  to  the  grave,  in  order 
that  as  many  as  possible  might  share  in  this  labor  of  love.  For 
this  purpose,  the  bier  was  from  time  to  time  laid  down  in  the 
street  or  road,  and  the  pauses  before  the  procession  resumed  its 
course  were  filled  up  with  songs  of  lamentation.  But  there  were 
certain  days  when  such  interruptions  of  the  passage  to  the  grave 
were  not  permitted  in  the  case  of  male  corpses,  and  they  were 
never  practiced  or  permissible  in  the  case  of  female  dead.  The 
bier  on  which  the  dead  was  carried  made  a  line  of  division 
between  the  two  sexes.  In  some  localities,  the  men  preceded,  the 
women  followed  the  bier,  as  was  Greek  custom ;  in  others,  the 
inverse  order  was  observed. 

The  interment  of  crowned  heads  and  persons  of  the  most 
exalted  social  position  was  exceptional  in  regard  to  many  obser- 
vances exclusively  practiced  in  their  honor.  Any  objects,  as 
furniture  and  the  like,  of  which  they  had  made  marked  and 
favorite  use,  were  burned ;  a  custom  expressly  stated  to  have 
been  borrowed  from  the  neighboring  peoples;  their  riding 
horses  were  hamstrung,  and  there  were  other  similar  observan- 
ces.    In  honor  of  the  deceased  R.  Gamaliel   the  elder,  the 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  85 

famous  convert  Oiikelos  erected  a  funeral  pyre  the  cost  of 
which  amounted  to  nearly  seventy  Tyrian  minse.  And  in  all 
other  possible  respects,  the  sepulture  of  kings  was  performed 
with  extraordinary  solemnity  and  splendor.  At  the  burial  of 
King  Chiskija,  we  are  told  that  many  thousand  soldiers,  it  is  even 
stated  thu-ty-six  thousand,  were  marshaled  in  the  fullest  military 
array,  and  the  whole  distance  from  the  house  of  mourning  where 
he  died,  to  the  hereditary  burial-place  of  the  Davidian  family, 
was  covered  with  carpet.  The  expensively  decorated  coffin  of 
Herod  was,  according  to  the  description  of  the  interment  given 
by  Josephus,  carried  by  the  sons  and  nearest  relations  ;  and, 
indeed,  it  was  general  usage  that  the  connections  and  friends  of 
the  departed  were  employed  in  the  performance  of  the  last  ser- 
vices of  love.  These  coftin-bearers,  in  Herod's  case,  were 
followed  by  military  detachments  representing  the  various  regi- 
ments and  nationalities  in  the  service,  in  complete  equipment 
and  under  the  command  of  the  generals  and  centurions.  The 
closing  partof  the  procession  wasmade  up  of  five  hundred  attend- 
ants, all  carrying  burning  incense.  At  the  interment  of  a 
member  of  the  royal  family,  the  king  in  person  but  very  rarely 
attended  the  funeral  cortege  ;  as  a  rule,  on  such  occasions  he 
withdrew  into  strict  seclusion  in  his  own  private  apartments. 

One  of  the  most  indispensable  elements  of  the  cortege  was 
composed  of  the  Nceniee  or  funeral  dirges  of  hired  mourners 
accomplished  in  such  art ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  torch-bearers, 
and  the  music  of  drums  and  flutes,  in  the  arrangement  of  which 
pains  were  taken,  that  the  solemnity  of  tlie  occasion  should  be 
well  marked.  The  function  of  paid  mourner  or  singer  of  songs 
of  lamentation  does  not  appear,  however,  to  have  been  exclu- 
sively performed,  as  among  the  Romans,  by  a  woman,  known  as 


86  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

\hQ  jprcefica  ;  on  the  contrary,  we  often  find  such  a  mourner  of* 
the  male  sex  employed,  who  had  a  special  Hebrew  name.  The 
legal  minimum  of  vocal  and  instrumental  music  in  funeral  cere- 
monies was  composed  of  two  flutes  and  a  singing  woman.  In 
Galilee,  the  people  employed  for  this  lamentation  in  music  went 
in  front  of  the  bier ;  in  Judea,  behind  it.  The  performances  and 
functions  of  these  hired  mourners  were  somewhat  complicated. 
They  had  to  make  solemn  appeal  to  those  present  to  show 
signs  of  grief,  and  utter  elaborate  lyrical  panegyrics  of  the  dead, 
beating  their  breasts,  and  expressing  grief  in  rythmical  move- 
ments of  the  hands  and  feet;  and  the  songs  of  mourning  were 
distributed  between  recitative  of  a  single  voice  and  chorus. 

Besides  these  songs  of  grief,  there  were  funeral  orations  at 
the  grave;  but  the  fragments  of  those  that  survive  show  that 
these  were  delivered  only  in  the  case  of  distinguished  persons ; 
for  others  there  was  a  set  and  general  formula  of  commemora- 
tion. As  to  the  significance  to  be  attached  to  the  funeral 
oration,  opinions  were  divided.  Some  regarded  it  as  a  consola- 
tory tribute  to  the  grief  of  survivors,  others  as  a  mark  of 
honor  to  the  dead.  In  the  course  of  time,  the  latter  view  pre- 
vailed ;  and  the  orator  at  the  grave,  in  the  latest  times  of  the 
usage,  tried  to  make  of  his  discourse  a  sort  of  mirror  reflecting 
the  earthly  career  of  the  deceased  on  earth,  and  forecasting  his 
probable  destiny  in  the  other  life.  Any  one  who  sincerely 
deplored  in  words  and  even  tears  the  loss  of  a  good  man  dead 
might  fairly,  according  to  popular  ideas,  expect  tliat  his  sins 
would  be  forgiven  him  ;  for  God  kept  count  of  such  tears  and 
stored  them  in  the  treasury  of  eternal  memory  ns  proofs  of 
human  love  and  sympathy  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was 
thought  that  unsympathizing  people,   who   only   joined   with 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  87 

lukewarm  voice  in  the  praise  of  a  noble  man  departed, 
deserved  to  be  buried  alive  themselves.  The  dead  person,  it 
was  foncied,  hears  tlic  })raise  uttered  in  his  memory  as  in  a 
sort  of  half-sleep  until  the  coffin-lid  is  nailed  down  over  him, 
or  until  corruption  sets  in  ;  and  Rab  before  his  death  urged 
R.  Samuel  b.  Silath  to  utter  an  impassioned  oration  over  his 
corpse  ;  "  for,"  said  he,  "  I  shall  assuredly  be  there,  and  hear 
thy  words  as  heretofore  in  life." 

These  funeral  orations  were  probably  delivered  at  stopping- 
places  of  the  funeral  cortege,  or  in  a  separate  building  belong- 
ing to  the  family  of  the  dead,  devoted  to  times  of  special 
mourning  among  them,  or  at  the  place  of  sepulture,  sometimes 
even  in  the  synagogue.  When  the  corpse  of  R.  Jehuda 
Hanasi  was  taken  to  Beth-Shearim,  the  cortege  had  eighteen 
stations  or  stopping-places;  or,  as  it  is  otherwise  explained, 
the  crowd  that  accompanied  it  stopped  at  eighteen  synagogues 
in  order  to  hear  the  various  funeral  discourses  delivered  at 
each  of  them.  R.  Seira  pronounced  the  funeral  oration  over 
one  of  his  disciples,  and  Rafrem  over  his  own  daughter-in-law 
in  the  synagogue.  It  seems  to  have  been  occasional  usage 
that  the  relatives  of  the  deceased  themselves  delivered  a 
speecli  for  the  purpose  of  formally  thanking  the  public  for 
their  sympathy  and  attention.  When  the  sons  of  R.  Aldba 
died,  the  Talmud  tells  us  that  an  enormous  crowd  of  people 
tiocked  to  their  interment.  When  the  usual  solemnities  were 
ended,  the  grief-stricken  father  himself  ascended  the  rostrum, 
and  addressed  the  people  as  follows :  "  Brothers  in  Israel,  ye 
must  hear  some  words  from  me !  Even  if  my  sons  hud  died 
exalted  by  betrothal  and  approaching  wedlock,  the  honor  ye 
have  shown  them  would  alnfost  liave  sufficed  to  console  me  in 


88  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

my  grief.  It  is  not  because  of  any  merit  or  station  of  mine, 
that  ye  are  all  here  to-day;  for,  assm-edly,  many  are  my 
equals  among  the  people.  Still  ye  have  not  forgotten  that  the 
Law  of  God  has  an  abiding  place  in  the  old  man's  heart  of 
hearts ;  and  it  is  the  doctrine,  the  truth,  the  religion  I  repre- 
sent to  which  ye  do  homage  at  this  hour.  Yerily  God  will 
requite  ye  abundantly.     Depart  in  peace  !  " 

We  still  possess  fragments  of  some  songs  and  orations. 
The  invitation  to  join  in  the  song  of  lamentation  ran  thus  in 
Palestine  :  "  "Weep  with  him,  all  ye  of  heavy-laden  heart !  " 
The  women  of  Shechanzib,  the  inhabitants  of  which  locality 
were  notorious  for  their  jesting  ways,  had  a  special  and  some- 
what obscure  refrain  in  their  songs  of  lamentation;  as,  for 
example,  "  hide  yourselves,  cover  yourselves,  ye  mountains, 
for  he  was  the  son  of  those  exalted  on  earth."  More  intelli- 
gible because  specially  applied  to  each  person  over  whom  they 
were  delivered,  whom  we  happen  moreover  to  know,  and  as  a 
rule  composed  in  the  purest  Hebrew,  are  the  funeral  orations, 
from  which  we  give  some  cliaracteristic  quotations. 

An  orator,  Bar  Kipop,  declaimed  as  follows  over  R.  Abina : 
"  When  the  devouring  flame  seizes  the  cedars,  what  shall  the 
lowly  hyssop  do  ?  If  leviathan  be  taken  by  the  angler's  hook, 
what  have  the  fi,shes  of  the  shallow  pond  to  expect:  if  the 
fishing  line  be  dropped  in  dashing  torrents,  how  stands  it  with 
the  waters  of  mere  brooks  ?"  Another  speaker  exclaimed  over 
the  same  R.  Abina:  "Mourn  for  those  who  are  left,  and  not 
for  him  who  has  been  taken  away  from  earth ;  for  he  has 
entered  into  his  rest ;  it  is  wc  who  are  bowed  and  broken  by 
sorrow."  R.  Lakish  joined  in  the  funeral-song  for  a  deceased 
yonng   scholar  from  Palestine,  distinguished  for  mastery  of 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  89 

traditional  lore,  in  thiswise:  "  Woe,  woe,  Palestine  is  poorer 
by  a  man  of  great  mark  and  likelihood."  R.Nachman  uttered 
the  following  cry  of  lamentation  over  another  meritorious 
teacher  of  the  law :  "  Alas,  the  very  book-case  is  broken !  " 
R.  Chanina  died  on  the  birthday  of  his  first-born  child,  and 
these  words  were  uttered  over  him :  "  Joy  was  changed  into 
pain  ;  delight  and  dismay  met  each  other  in  the  way ;  in  the 
very  moment  of  happiness,  grief  hastened  to  overtake  him,  and, 
even  in  his  hour  of  favor  and  grace,  mercy  failed  his  life." 
When  R.  Simon  b.  Zebid  went  to  his  last  home,  R.  Levi  thus 
lamented:  "Earthly  possessions,  when  they  depart  from  us,  may 
be  replaced,  for  there  is  a  vein  for  the  silver,  a  stratum  whence 
tlie  gold  is  brought  to  the  light,  iron  is  wrested  from  the  earth, 
and  the  metals  of  bronze  obtained  from  their  stones ;"  but  when 
a  wise  man  is  torn  away  from  the  world,  what  shall  balance  his 
loss  ?  For  "  where  is  wisdom  found,  and  where  does  insight 
lurk  ?  Verily  they  disclose  themselves  not  to  the  eye  of  the 
living  man.  The  brothers  of  Joseph  were  startled  when  they 
found  valuables  unexpectedly,  how  much  more  must  we  be 
stricken  with  terror,  when  we  -lose  inestimable  treasure  in  one 
who  departs  from  us  in  death."  R.  Lakisli  began  the  funeral 
discourse  over  R.  Chija  b.  Ada,  son  of  Bar  Kappara's  sister, 
with  the  following  homily  :  "  My  lover  goes  down  into  his 
garden,  to  the  beds  of  spices,  to  wander  about  in  the  garden 
and  pluck  roses.  The  lover  is  God,  the  Lord  ;  the  garden  in 
which  he  goes  about  is  the  large  wide  world,  in  which  Israel 
sends  up  its  perfume  like  a  small  bed  of  fragrant  flowers,  fenced 
round  by  peace  ;  Israel  where  firmly  foimded  piety  and  learn- 
ing flourish  and  put  fortli  vast  leaves  whereunder  to  shelter 
from  life's  heats :  it  is  tiiis  bed  tliat  the  Lord  seeks,  and  plucks 


90  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

the  queens  of  the  garden,  the  roses,  the  disciples  of  the  law 
whose  belief  is  their  delight."  At  the  grave  of  Samuel  Hakaton 
who  died  childless,  R.  Gamaliel  the  elder,  and  E-.  Eleazar  b. 
Asarja  thus  spoke  :  "  Here  is  one  over  whom  we  ought  indeed 
to  shed  tears  and  grieve.  Kings  transmit  their  crown  to  their 
successors,  the  wealthy  leave  their  treasures  to  tlieu*  children, 
but  Samuel  has  gone  to  his  last  home,  and  taken  with  him  all 
bis  glorious  possessions." 

The  public  cemetery  was  usually  situated  at  least  fifty  ells 
from  the  city  boundaries.  In  selecting  its  site,  care  was  taken 
that  the  ground  should  be  rocky  and  well  drained.  The  manners 
of  the  people  altogether  forbad  the  erection  of  graves  or  mau- 
solea  on  public  roads  or  at  cross-ways,  as  was  so  customary  in 
Greece.  But  the  same  feeling  which  forbad  this,  led  to  fre- 
quent interments  either  in  gardens  or  very  near  them ;  and  it  is 
more  than  probable  that  graves  and  tombs  were  planted  with 
roses,  and  all  sorts  of  flowering  shrubs.  Any  disturbance  of  the 
quiet  and  peace  of  burial-places  was  carefully  prevented,  and 
special  measures  were  taken  to  keep  wild  animals  from  the 
graves,  and  prevent  tlieir  being  t'avaged  by  such  creatures.  To 
tread  the  turf  of  the  graves  was  regarded  as  showing  a  want  of 
reverent  feeling  to  the  dead.  H.  Jonathan  did  it  once,  and 
received  this  rebuke  from  R.  Chija :  "  Rabba,  do  you  know  what 
the  dead  think  when  you  do  that  ?  They  who  outrage  us  to-day 
will  to-morrow  be  here  under  the  sod  with  us." 

Cemeteries,  as  at  this  day  in  the  Orient,  were  favorite  places 
of  resort ;  for  the  siglit  of  graves  humbles  the  soul,  and  prayer 
ofiered  among  them  is  apt  to  be  more  intense ;  another  motive 
was  to  evoke  memories  of  companionship  with  the  dead,  and 
so  hold  silent  and  imagined  discourse  with  departed  souls.     It 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 


91 


was  thus  that  Judah  b.  Tabbai,  who  had,  as  Ab-beth-din,*  caused 
an  innocent  man  to  be  unjustly  put  to  death,  made  a  practice 
of  visiting  the  victim's  grave  ;  thus  that  R.  Joshua,  who  had 
had  a  severe  controversy  on  religious  questions  with  the  dis- 
ciples of  Sharamai,   and  was   subsequently  convinced  of  the 
infirmity  of  the  opinions  he  had  maintained,  went  to  the  graves 
of  his  opponents  and  there  solemnly  confessed  and  recanted 
his  errors.     It  was  also  a  common  thing  to  deliver  lectures  on 
religious  subjects  over  the  graves  of  persons  distinguished  for 
holiness  of  life,  and  in  the  case  of  very  distinguished  scholars, 
this  was  commonly  done  on  every  anniversary  of  their  death. 
But  it  must  be  admitted  that  many  superstitious  notions  were 
connected  with  this  practice  of  visiting  cemeteries.     Though 
it  was  generally  held  dangerous  to  pass  an   entire  night  in 
these  abodes  of  the  dead,  and  those  who  made  a  practice  of 
doing  so  were  stamped  in  public  opinion  as  almost  touched  in 
mind,  yet  many  a  charlatan  and  enthusiast  determined  at  any 
cost  to  establish  mysterious  relations  with  the   departed,  as 
well  as  for  themselves  the  character  of  skillful  magicians,  were 
wont  to  pay  these  moonlit  visits  to  the  spirits.     And  as  church- 
yards generally  cast  a  gloom  over  the  imagination,  or  the 
imagination  over  them,  impostors  may  frequently  have  used 
this  twilight  of  the  mind  to  vail  their  frauds ;  and  it  is  well 
known  that,  in  popular  belief,  dust  from  the  grave  of  holy  men 
was  an  approved  specific  againt  fevers. 

As  Islam  spread,  so  superstition  in  regard  to  the  dead  and 

their  resting-place  increased  among  the  Jews.     Abiilsavi  Sahal 

b.  Mazllach,  a  Karaite  of  the  tenth  century,  drew  up  a  most 

solemn  classified  catalogue  of  the  heathenish   practices  of  liis 

*  The  presiding  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court. 


92  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

rabbanite  contemporaries  ;  they  sit  on  graves,  spend  their  time 
uselessly  in  cemeteries,  pray  to  the  dead,  offer  up  vows  to  them 
and  say :  "  O  Joseph  of  the  Galileans,  save  me,  give  me  chil- 
dren." They  light  torches  or  tapers,  send  up  incense,  and  join 
in  dances  over  the  graves  of  pious  people  ;  and,  to  avert  illness, 
hang  up  votive  offerings  on  the  palm-trees  in  the  cemeteries. 
Isaac  Sheshet  (XIV.  century)  tells  us  expressly  that  the  Spanish 
Jews  of  his  time  followed  Mohammedan  usage  in  spending  the 
first  seven  days  of  the  mourning  at  the  place  of  sepulture  of 
the  deceased.  At  Saragossa,  the  mourners  were  usually  fol- 
low'ed  from  the  Synagogue  to  their  house  by  all  the  people  in 
a  crowd,  in  the  same  first  seven  days.  On  the  way,  a  profes- 
sional female  mourner  sang  a  song  of  lament,  accompanying 
herself  on  a  sort  of  tambourine,  and  the  other  women  joined 
in  clapping  their  hands  to  the  rhythm. 

Death  was  regarded  as  a  complete  leveler  of  all  distinctions 
and  differences  of  man  from  man  during  life;  for,  say  the 
Talmudists,  "'be  things  small  or  be  they  great,  they  find  their 
way  at  last  into  the  grave ;"  and  this  feeling  went  so  far  that 
the  very  barrier  of  religion  fell  before  death,  and  non-Jewish 
corpses  were  allowed  to  rest  by  the  side  of  Jewish  in  a  common 
cemetery ;  yet  tlie  line  was  drawn  in  the  case  of  crime.  This 
was  stigmatized  even  by  dishonoring  differences  in  death  and 
burial ;  less  by  way  of  punishment  for  the  offense  than  as 
warning  to  others.  The  suicide  received  but  a  portion  of  the 
funeral  honors  accorded  to  others.  The  apostate  who  had 
shown  himself  embittered  against  his  mother-religion  was  even 
more  sternly  dealt  with.  A  man  of  notorious  wickedness  was 
not  allowed  to  rest  near  those  whose  piety  had  been  unques- 
tionable; though  til  is  last  discrimination,  when   people   began 


HEBREW    0HAKACTERI8TICS.  ,  93 

to  pay  respect  to  the  inaxim  wliich  forbids  linking  the  idea  of 
evil  with  the  dead,  fell  into  disuse.  Justice  provided  a  separ- 
ate burial  place  for  those  who  perished  by  her  decrees ;  but  the 
connections  of  the  condemned  were  permitted,  after  suitable 
lapse  of  time,  to  collect  their  bones  and  deposit  them  in  the 
family  sepulclire.  In  like  manner,  the  corpses  of  involuntary 
homicides  who  died  in  the  cities  of  refuge,  might,  after  the 
death  of  the  High-Priest,  be  returned  to  their  homes  ;  while, 
conversely,  those  who  died  after  such  offense  before  they  fled 
for  refuge,  were  held  bound  to  do  so,  as  it  were  vicariously,  in 
death,  and  their  corpses  were  carried  thither.  Those  who  fell 
in  battle  were  buried  on  the  field.  Death  at  sea  under  circum- 
stances which  forbad  interment  was  always  thought  of  with 
especial  horror. 

The  cynicism  of  grave-diggers  was  proverbial,  and  repaid 
by  public  contempt.  "Worse  than  a  grave-digger"  was  a 
word  frequently  on  men's  lips.  But  for  all  this  a  Tannaite  of 
mark,  Abba  Saul,  unhesitatingly  adopted  the  occupation.  How 
anxious  and  systematic  was  the  care  taken  by  the  Jewish  people 
that  their  cemeteries  should  be  well  kept  and  of  dignified 
appearance,  is  shown  by  a  legend  according  to  which  the  nations 
bordering  Palestine,  when  inducing  Nebuchadnezzar  to  invade 
Palestine,  drew  a  seductive  picture  of  the  country,  telling  him, 
among  other  things,  that  there  was  more  splendor  in  the  ceme- 
teries of  the  Jews  than  in  his  palaces. 

The  practice  of  preparing  the  tomb  during  life,  abundantly 
testified  to  in  the  Talmud,  has  been  maintained  up  to  the  latest 
time.  Originally  corpses  were  deposited  in  chambers,  and  the 
skeleton  was  subsequently  taken  thence  and  put  in  a  coffin. 
At  this  second  sepulture,  when  the  bones  were  collected,  there 


94  ,  HEBREW  CHAKACTERI6TICS. 

was  a  solemn  ceremonial  on  a  smaller  scale  than  at  the  first, 
with  orations  and  other  usages.  Piety  enjoined  that  the  bones 
of  the  dead  should  be  carefully  handled ;  they  were  wrapped 
in  linen  cloths,  or  deposited  in  some  strong  suitable  vessel, 
anointed  with  wine  and  oil,  and  fastened  together  by  ligaments, 
like  mummies  in  Egypt.  The  bones  of  two  dead  persons  were 
on  no  account  to  be  rashly  mixed  together  ;  and  children  were 
not  permitted  to  perforin  the  task  of  collecting  the  bones  of 
deceased  parents ;  for  this,  as  Zadok  explained  to  his  son 
Eleazer  b.  Zadok,  might  somewhat  impair  the  reverential 
respect  due  to  a  parent's  memory. 

The  graves  differed  in  character  and  construction  at  difier- 
ent  times.  Sometimes  they  were  vaults  or  pits,  hypogoea,  for 
general  use,  sometimes  they  were  of  masonry,  with  oblique  cor- 
ridors of  niches,  which  might  be  long  or  short  at  pleasure.  In 
order  to  avert  any  approach  or  profanation  forbidden  by  the 
law,  they  were  distinguished  outwardly  by  a  stone  whitened  by 
chalk,  in  which  we  are  perliaps  to  see  the  first  traces  of  the  grave- 
stone. The  edifice  of  stone  above  the  grave,  of  which  the 
Talmud  makes  mention  in  several  places,  and  which  we  may 
conclude  from  one  passage  to  have  been  hollow  and  probably 
designed  as  a  sort  of  guest  chamber  for  visitors  to  the  tomb, 
appears  to  have  been  in  by  no  means  general  use  ;  at  all  events 
R.  Simeon  b.  Gamaliel  declared  that  pious  people,  whose 
actions  in  life  were  more  important  than  all  other  memorials, 
did  not  require  their  graves  to  be  thus  distinguished  or  adorned. 
It  was  a  superstructure  of  this  kind,  no  doubt,  the  monument  of 
white  stone  erected  by  Herod  on  the  grave  of  David,  and  that 
which  Simon  the  Maccabee  put  up  to  commemorate  his  father 
and  brothers,  which  was  composed  of  seven  towering  pyramids 


HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS.  95 

of  polished  stone,  decorated  with  weapons  of  war  and  profusely 
carved,  visible  from  a  very  great  distance.  Of  a  grave-stone 
the  Talmud  makes  no  mention  whatever ;  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  in  Talmudic  times  decoration  of  Jewish  graves  had 
begun  to  be  a  pretty  general  practice,  and  it  may  have  been 
thought  discreet  to  avoid  exposing  the  graves  of  Jewish  dead  to 
profanation  by  provocative  and  conspicuous  monuments  ;  but  it 
is  remarked  incidentally  in  one  passage  that  to  read  tiie  "  writing 
on  graves  "  is  somewhat  detrimental  to  memory,  and  this  sug- 
gests that  the  graves  had  epitaphs. 

When  a  body  was  once  solemnly  interred,  there  was  great 
reluctance  in  transferring  it,  for  any  cause,  to  another  grave. 
But  an  exception  was  made  in  the  case  of  the  transfer  of  a 
corpse  to  a  family  burial-place ;  for  "  it  is  sweet  to  man  to  rest 
among  his  fathers."  When  burial  grounds  were  already  quite 
filled,  the  Gaon.  R.  Hai  allowed  an  upper  layer  of  corpses  to 
be  deposited  on  those  already  there,  provided  that  a  layer  of 
earth,  of  at  least  an  ell  in  depth,  could  be  between  them. 

So  much  concerning  the  solemnities  attending  the  disposition 
of  the  corpse,  of  which  we  are  now  able  to  see  something  up  to 
the  last  clod  of  earth  thrown  into  the  grave.  As  to  the  mourn- 
ing ceremonies  that  followed  interment,  and  the  usages  con-, 
nected  therewith,  form  the  subject  of  a  separate  study.  But  in 
some  measure  to  make  the  foregoing  sketch  complete,  the 
remarks  that  follow  may  be  in  place. 

The  assembled  sympathizers  formed  themselves  into  long 
files  which  the  mourners,  usually  clad  in  black,  traversed  to 
receive  a  special  word  from  every  one  present.  On  the  return 
from  the  grave,  a  halt  was  made  at  difierent  places,  at  least 
seven,  partly  for  the  purpose  of  uttering  praises  of  the  dead, 


96  HEBREW    CHARACTERISTICS. 

partly  to  console  the  mourners,  and  to  utter  some  words  of  thanks 
to  the  assembled  people.  The  signal  for  stopping  at  anyplace 
was  given  in  the  formula,  "  Take  your  places,  worthy  friends  ;" 
for  renewing  the  march  by  the  formula,  "  Rise  up,  worthy 
friends ! "  In  very  old  times,  the  family  of  the  deceased  prepared 
a  funeral  feast  for  the  public,  a  custom  of  which  the  Talmud 
knows  nothing,  and  which,  as  Josephus  remarks,  helped  to  im- 
poverish many  families ;  for  in  spite  of  the  enormous  expense, 
no  one  could  well  escape  complying  with  it. 


NEW   YORK. 


Leopold  Bambebqeb,  Esq.,  243  Broadway,  New  York. 
Benjamin  I.  Habt,  Esq.  ,  657  Broadway,  New  York. 

2tl  Wxts-^xt^uUnt 

Mteb  Stebn,  Esq.,  130  Church  St.,  New  York. 

Edwabd  Mobbison,  Esq.  ,  52  Broadway,  New  York. 

Aenold  Tanzeb,  Esq.,  G3  Crosby  st.,  New  York. 

Louis  Lewengood,  Esq. 

Key.  H.  S.  Jacobs. 

Wm.  B.  Hackenbueg,  Esq.,  Philadelphia. 

Hon.  S.  Wolf,  Washington,  D.  C. 

gubUcatiou  (tomnxiiUt* 

Eev.  Db.  G.  Gottheil. 

Eev.  De.  M.  Mielzinee. 

Key.  De.  F.  de  Sola  Mendes. 

M.  Ellingeb,  Esq. 

Eey.  De.  M.  Jasteow,  Philadelphia. 

6fncvat  ^jjcnt. 

Sol.  Weil,  Esq.,  338  E.  30th  st.,  New  York. 


AMERICAN  JEWISH  PUBLICATION  SOCIETY. 


lo«.  Witt- 

Portland,  Maine. — B.  Aaronson,  Esq. 
Boston,  Mass. — Jacob  Norton,  Esq. 
Providence,  li.  I. — Henry  Green,  Esq. 
Hartford,  Ct. — Joseph  Schwab,  Esq. 
NeiD  Haven,  Ct.—M.  Zunder,  Esq. 
Bridgeport,  Ct. — Moses  Klein,  Esq. 
Waterbury,  Ct. — L.  Kaiser,  Esq. 
Rochester,  N.   Y. — Elias  S.  Ettenhei- 

mer,  Esq. 
Albany,  N.    F.— Hon.  S.  W.  Rosen- 
dale. 
Buffalo,  JSr.  r.— Rev  Dr.  S.  Fidk. 
Syracuse,  N.   Y. — Rev.  Dr.    B.   Bir- 

kenthal. 
Elmira,  N.  T.— Rev.  Stahl. 
Bondout,  N.  T. — S.  Weiner,  Esq. 
Troy,  N.  J.— Rev.  Dr.  Eberson. 
Pouglikeepsie,    N.     Y. — Henry   Wise, 

Esq. 
Williamsburg,    L.    I. — Rev.    Dr.    Ig- 

natz  Gross. 
Schenectady,  N.   F.— Rev.  Jos.  Gliick. 
Newburg,  iV.    F.— M.  H.  Hirshberg, 

Esq. 
Plattsburg,   N.    F.— Henry  W.  Cane, 

Esq. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.— Rev.  Geo.   Jacobs. 
Pittsburg,    Pa.— Gust.  Grafner,  Esq. 
Pottsville,  Pa.— Rev.  J.  Oppenheim. 
Williamsport,  Pa. — Rev.  S.  Freuden- 

thal. 
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Wilkesbarre,  Pa.— Rev.  H.  Rubin. 
Oil  City,  Pa.— J.  Seldner,  Esq. 
Franklin,    Pa.— A.     Kleinordlinger, 

Esq. 


Alleghany  City,  Pa. — E.  M.   Greene* 

baum. 
Co)'y,  Pa.— Martin  Stork,  Esq. 
Scranton,  Pa. — Siegfried  Sutto,  Esq. 
Lancaster,  Pa. — Philip  C.  Noot,  Esq. 
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Easton,  Pa. — Moses  Stern,  Esq. 
Harrisburg,  Pa. — William  Wolf,  Esq. 
Meadmlle,  Pa. — Jacob  Miller,  Esq. 
Baltimore,  Md.—M.  R.  Walter,  Esq. 
Frederick,   Md.  — Henry   Goldenberg, 

Esq. 
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Esq, 
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Washington,  D.   C. — A.   S.  Solomon, 

Esq. 
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Esq. 
Richmond,    Va. — Hon.    William  Low- 

enstein. 
Norfolk,  Fa.— Rev.  S.  Mendelsohn. 
Wheeling,  Va.  —Henry  Frank,  Esq. 
Alexandria,    Va. — Rev.    A.    A.    Bon- 

heim. 
Petersburg,  Va. — Re-".  Alex.  Gross. 
Lynchburg,   Fa.— Max  Guggenheimer, 

Jr.,  Esq. 
Cliarlestywn,  W.  Fa. —Samuel  Strauss, 

Esq. 
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Esq. 
Charleston,  8.  V. — Philip  Wineman, 

Esq. 
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Columbus,  Ga. — Rev.  Bonhsim. 


AMEEICAN  JEWISH  PUBLICATION  SOCIETY. 


Hon.  Vice-Presidents— Continued. 


Macon,  Oa.  — Jacob  Harris,  Esq. 
Atlanta,  Ga. — Eev.  H.  Gersoni. 
Albany,  Ga. — Hon.  Ansel  Sterne. 
Augusta,  Ga. — Rev.  Lewinson. 
Mobile,  Ala. — I.  I.  Jones,  Esq. 
"  "      Eev.  Dr.  Moses. 

Selma,  Ala. — Jos.  Myers,  Esq. 
Mojitgomery,  Ala. — Rev.  Jacobs. 
Eufala,  Ala. — Hy.  Bernstein,  Esq. 
Vicksburg,  Miss.  — Rev.  B.  H.  Gotthelf . 
Natchez,  Miss.  — Isaac  Lowenburg,  Esq. 
lieiD  Orleans,  La, — Rev.  J.   K.   Gut- 

heim. 
Shreveport,  La. — J.  A.  Bergman,  Esq. 
Bayou  Sara,  La. — Major  Simon  "Weil. 
Clinton,  La. — Joseph  Israel,  Esq. 
Alexandria,  Za.— Julius  Lewin,  Esq. 
Opelousas,     La. — Emanuel     Phillips, 

Esq. 
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Houston,  Tex.—B.j.  S.  Fox,  Esq. 
Columbus,     Tex. — Hon.    Hy.    Merse- 

burger. 
San  Antonio,  Tex. — B.  Oppenheimer, 

Esq. 
MempMs,    Tenn. — A.    H.   Frankland, 

Esq. 
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Chattanooga,  Tenn. — F.  Decker,  Esq. 
Pine  Bluffs,  Ark.—B,ev.  Dr.  M.  Flue- 

gel. 
Little  Bock,  Ark. — Rev.  Block. 
Louisville,  Ky. — Rev.  Dr.  Kleeberg. 
St.  Louis,  Mo. — Isidor  Bush,  Esq. 


St.  Joseph,  Mo. — Eev.  S.  Gerstmann. 
Kansas  City,  Mo. — Jas.  Kohn,  Esq. 
Cincinnati,    0. — Lewis     Seasongood, 

Esq. 
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Youngtown,  0. — E.  Gutman,  Esq. 
Fiqua,  0.— H.  Flesh,  Esq. 
Columbus,0. — J.  Gundersheimer,  Esq. 
Hamilton,  0. — Samuel  Levy,  Esq. 
Portsmouth,  0. — H.  Richman,  Esq. 
Akron,  0. — Isaac  Cohen,  Esq. 
Dayton,  0. — Rev.  Fischer. 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind.—B,ey.  Rubin. 
Indianapolis,  Ind. — Hon.  Leon  Eahn. 
Evansville,    Ind. — S.    I.   Lowenstein, 

Esq. 
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Vincennes,  Ind. — S.  Gimble,  Esq. 
La  Fayette,  Ind. — Isaac  Baer,  Esq. 
Chicago,  111. — Hy.  Greenebaum,  Esq. 
Quincy,  111. — Rev.  Isaac  Moses. 
Milwaukee,  Mich. — Rev.  Dr.  Spitz. 
Grand Bapids,  Mich. — Arthur  C.  Levi, 

Esq. 
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Beloit,  Wis. — Chas.  Newburgh,  Esq. 
St.  Paul,  Minn. — Rev.  Dr.  Winter. 
Sa7i  Francisco,  Cal.— Alfred  P.  Elf  eld, 

Esq. 
Los  Angelos,  Cal. — Rev.  Edelman. 
Denver,  Cal. — A.  Jacobs,  Esq. 
Montreal,  Canada  East. — Rev.  Dr.  de 

Sola. 
Toronto,  Ont. — Samuel  Solomon,  Esq. 


A  FULL  List  of  Members  will  Accompany  the  Next  Issue. 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


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